Definition: Recognition of a person through certain features that distinguish him from others.
Types:
1)Legal: complete description of unknown body.
Required in:
-case of fire, explosion & travel accidents.
-dead body found on road, fields, railway or in water.
-decomposed or multilated bodies & skeletal remains.
2)Personal or civil: by relatives, friends or witness
3)Criminal: police job.
Required in case of murder, rape, impersonation or interchange of newborn.
Comprises: dactylography, photography, lip prints, foot prints & DNA fingerprinting.
Identification of the Living
- Personal (visual) identification
- Photography (ID or car license)
- Anthropometry (variuos body measurements)
- Fingerprints (Dactylography): done by the police.
- Poroscopy (pores of sweat exam)
- Foot print (Sole print) & other types of prints iris, lip, hard palate, sound, ear and DNA.
- Handwriting
- Blood grouping
Identification of the Dead Bodies
1) Dead (un-multitated) body
- 1ry physical characteristics (very difficult to change during life): sex, age, height/stature, weight, race and DNA fingerprints.
- 2ry physical characteristics (can change during life, either deliberately or as result of medical/dental interference): skin color, teethm hair, scars, tattooing, fingerprints, external peculiarities (like circumsion, moles or warts), deformities, clothing, jewellery, cosmetic
2) Multitated body: like gravely injured/ multitated bodies found in mass disaster
- Presumptives: visual, anthropometric, personal data. Usually identifies the victim as a member of certain population rather than a unique individual.
-Positive identification: legal identification based on comparison between pre & postmortem info; such as dental examination, fingerprints, palm prints, foot prints or DNA profiling.
Identification of Bones
- Are they actually bones?: anatomical shapes & texture
- Are they human bones? : anatomical features & precipitin test
- Do they belong to one person?: If found 2 skulls mean 2 different persons
- Identification of Sex (After puberty)
- Identification of Age
- Identification of Stature: heifgt, long bones length, Pearson's formula
- Identification of Race : Like Negroid and Mongoloid
- Deformities from bones
- Causes of death : pathological, traumatic, toxic
- Time passed since death: (< 6 months: soft tissues ara found on tissue, 6-12 months: bones attach to ligaments, after 1 year: only bones present which are lighter, whiter, less smelly & more brittle as time passed)
Friday, March 29, 2013
Oral Exam Ophthal..Satu Cubaan atau Nikmat?
Bismillahirrahmanirrahim, baru selepas 2 hari lalu iaitu pada 27hb Mac 2013, aku dan sahabat-sahabat menempuh peperiksaan praktikal dan lisan dan ALhamdulillah semuanya berjalan lancar dan tiada sahabat-sahabat yang ter'miss' hari tersebut.Terasa nak catat sedikit untuk peringatan ku pada masa hadapan dan aku pun agak lapang ketika ini hehe.
Hari Rabu, di awal pagi, aku bergegas ke Deparment 14 pada awal pagi kerana peperiksaan akan bermula sekitar 7 pagi. Diberitahu supaya datang pukul 6.30 pagi, namun sampai memang tepat-tepat pukul 7. Bukan aku seorang, ramai daripada kalangan sahabat memilih untuk datang 'on time' berbanding datang awal, hehe..
Apabila sampai sahaja aku di sana, suasana exam mula dirasai dengan sedikit adaptasi wad-wad di situ dimana beberapa meja dan kerusi telah diatur bagi peperiksaan lisan. Suasana yang berbeza walaupun di tempat ini lah kami mengutip ilmu yang dilontarkan oleh doktor-doktor dalam bidang Ophthalmology sepanjang 8 minggu kami di department ini. Hu~ terasa sedikit cemas sambil kaki melangkah masuk ke ruangan kelas untuk bahagian pertama peperiksaan iaitu 'slide exam'.
Exam dimulai dengan 'slide-slide' PPT untuk pertanyaan diagnosis dan satu soalan pendek. Jumlah slide adalah sebanyak lima slide, gambar pertama tentang Glaucomatous cupping Primary Optic atrophy, kedua kalau tidak silap Retinitis Pigmentosa, Ketiga Red reflex with Posterior Cortical Opacity, Keempat aku lupa (haha) dan kelima gambar menceritakan tentang Horner;s Syndrome. Kalau tidak silap jawapannya, maka kira betul lah jawapan aku, InsyaAllah,
Sekarang masuk ke sesi kedua, iaitu exam klinikal praktikal di mana setiap pelajar akan diberikan satu pesakit (yang duduk kat atas katil) untuk diperiksa peperiksaan klinikal untuk mengenalpasti penyakit yang dihadapi pesakit. Aku masuk ke dalam wad menjadi sebahagian daripada kumpulan yang kedua terawal untuk 'clinical examination'. Masuk dengan tenang sampai ke sebuah katil yang dijaga oleh Dr Nasywa(kalau tidak silap) dan seorang makcik yang menundukkan pandangannya dengan keadaan duduk di atas katil sambil kaki mengunjur ke hadapan.
Aku memasuki suasana itu dengan sebuah salam. Maka dijawab makcik tersebut dengan salam, Dr Nasywa pun sahut jugak. Aku terfikir sejenak, makcik ni nampak macam pening je, apa yang kawan aku seorang yang masuk awal (dalam kumpulan pertama) buat sampai terpinga-pinga makcik ni, mungkin silau kot. Sedetik itu juga, terus ku minta izin makcik itu untuk memeriksa mata kanannya dengan suluhan lampu. Didapati terdapat satu keputihan pada kanta mata. Aku main-main kan suluhan lampu sehingga ke kiri ke kanan untuk melihat 'iris shadow' (bayangan iris mata yang terhasil disebabkan kewujudan pantulan cahaya dari kanta mata) tidak lain dan tidak bukan untuk meyakinkan diagnosis ku iaitu Immature Senile Cataract. Aku tulis dengan yakin, InsyaAllah betul kot.
Secara ringkasnya, kami akan diuji dengan dua soalan, satu 'spot diagnosis' yang ditulis diagnosisnya selepas diperiksa mata dan satu lagi adalah kami perlu tunjuk ataupun demonstrasi kepada doktor yang bertugas macam mana nak periksa makcik ni secara klinikal. Dalam kes aku, aku kena periksa 'pupil' (ruangan mata yang membesar dan mengecil disebabkan pantulan cahaya), agak mudah lah sebenarnya, Alhamdulillah Allah permudahkan. Pemeriksaan ini boleh dikatakan antara yang paling mudah untuk dilakukan.
Alhamdulillah, makcik memberi kerjasama yang baik untuk tugas kedua aku memeriksa 'pupillary reaction' dan 'swinging light reflex test'. Pada mulanya, aku tersilap langkah, tetapi aku sempat membetulkannya sebelum doktor menegurku hehe. "Syukran Ya hagah", ku mengucapkan kalam penghargaan kepada beliau.
Selepas hampir 40 minit kami dikumpulkan dalam satu ruangan untuk menghabiskan peperiksaan bagi sahabat dan sahabiah yang lain, maka bermula lah ujian lisan atau lebih masyhur dengan sebutan: "Oral Exam". Bahang mula dirasai, masing-masing mula nampak cemas dan tidak dilupai 'syndrome' sebelum nak exam datang menziarahi seperti sakit perut, lapar dan sebagainya. Aku cuba menenangkan diri dengan membuka buku untuk dibaca. Hakikatnya, semua yang dibaca tak masuk dalam kepala, cuma itu satu wasilah untuk ku supaya bertenang dalam fatrah menunggu selama lebih 30 minit itu.
Selepas itu, kami dipanggil seorang demi seorang untuk bertemu dengan profesor-profesor yang akan menyoal kami tentang manhaj Ophthalmology. Mereka ingin tahu, adakah apa yang mereka ajarkan kepada kami menjadi kefahaman atau fakta semata-mata bagi kami.
Sedikit tentang peperiksaan lisan kali ini, setiap orang akan dipanggil dan dihadapkan dengan profesor-profesor department yang menjadi tenaga pengajar sepanjang Round Ophthal kami,(supaya Allah melimpahi usaha mereka atas pemberian ilmu perubatan kepada kami semua, Amin) dan setiap orang akan ditanya paling kurang 2 orang doktor dan salah seorang akan memainkan watak 'mask face' manakala seorang lagi akan membantu kita (bagi 'hint' lah sikit) untuk menjawab. Kalau ada doktor yang lebih, ia akan menjadi pemerhati sahaja, Alhamdulillah, dalam kes aku, aku dapat doktor yang baik (tak garang lah), Dr Aiman dan Dr Nasywa kalau tidak silap.
Hendak diceritakan agak tragis juga, maklumlah soalan yang didapati memang tidak kena pada bacaan selama 3 hari aku buka buku, haha. Ibrahnya, kena belajar awal sedikit supaya tidak lah kita ni memandang rendah pada peperiksaan dan bersedia bila-bila masa untuk menghadapi sesuatu peperiksaan.
Namun, Alhamdulillah, aku masih mampu menjawab soalan-soalan tersebut biarpun pembacaan ku agak kurang (taklah sampai senyap terus hehe) jika dibandingan dengan sahabat yang lain. Maklumlah, orang baca buku Medic, kita baca buku lain, haha.
Soalan-soalan yang aku kena soal selepas memilih sekeping kertas A4 yang dipotong kepada dua bahagian. Apabila dibelek ke ruangan yang bercetak, aku melihat tulisan sedikit sebanyak seperti di bawah:
1. Differential Diagnosis of Follicular conjunctivitis,
2. Diagnosis of Primary Open Angle Glaucoma,
3. Metabolic disorder that can cause corneal opacities,
4. Hyphema: Causes & Management
Sedikit termenung, sebab dalam keempat-empat soalan ini, hanya dua soalan aku tahu dengan 'detail' sedikit, yang lagi dua agak *blur lah, namun jawapan dia aku terfikir jugak time tu (on the spot). Alhamdulillah Allah nak bagi petunjuk dan aku boleh lah jawab, tetapi secara 'superficial' lah, tidaklah terperinci sangat.
Ku mulai jawapanku dengan soalan ke 4, seterusnya soalan ke 2, soalan nombor 1 dan akhir sekali yang paling 'blank' sekali soalan nombor 3. Memang target doktor untuk menggunakan setiap perkataan ku menjadi satu soalan. Dan dari soalan itu meleret ke soalan yang lain, sampai lah kita 'blank', haha. Memang semua teman kena macam tu, memang penutup kita ditutupi dengan penjelasan daripada doktor/profesor dan tidak dengan susunan ayat jawapan kita. Namun, teknik ini mampu membezakan antara kefahaman dan fakta semata-mata. 'Kamu tahu sahaja atau kamu faham?', seolah itu apa yang mereka ingin ketahui daripada aku dan sahabat-sahabat lain. Agak tertekan, namun aku keluar dengan satu ibrah yang baru, "Aku kena baca, hafal dan faham betul-betul!', hati terdetik merasai betapa luasnya dunia perubatan ini. Senyum.
Alhamdulillah a'la kulli hal, berakhirnya exam praktikal dan oral ini memberi impak kepada ku untuk cuba memahami Ophthalmology ini dengan lebih mendalam dan banyakkan membaca buku lain selain buku department. InsyaAllah, akan ku exam oral sekali lagi untuk Ophthalmology dalam 'exam Final' dua bulan lagi. Sekali lagi, akan bertemu lagi dengan cabaran ini, mudah-mudahan aku lebih bersedia untuk menghadapinya, InsyaAllah.
Hari Rabu, di awal pagi, aku bergegas ke Deparment 14 pada awal pagi kerana peperiksaan akan bermula sekitar 7 pagi. Diberitahu supaya datang pukul 6.30 pagi, namun sampai memang tepat-tepat pukul 7. Bukan aku seorang, ramai daripada kalangan sahabat memilih untuk datang 'on time' berbanding datang awal, hehe..
Apabila sampai sahaja aku di sana, suasana exam mula dirasai dengan sedikit adaptasi wad-wad di situ dimana beberapa meja dan kerusi telah diatur bagi peperiksaan lisan. Suasana yang berbeza walaupun di tempat ini lah kami mengutip ilmu yang dilontarkan oleh doktor-doktor dalam bidang Ophthalmology sepanjang 8 minggu kami di department ini. Hu~ terasa sedikit cemas sambil kaki melangkah masuk ke ruangan kelas untuk bahagian pertama peperiksaan iaitu 'slide exam'.
Exam dimulai dengan 'slide-slide' PPT untuk pertanyaan diagnosis dan satu soalan pendek. Jumlah slide adalah sebanyak lima slide, gambar pertama tentang Glaucomatous cupping Primary Optic atrophy, kedua kalau tidak silap Retinitis Pigmentosa, Ketiga Red reflex with Posterior Cortical Opacity, Keempat aku lupa (haha) dan kelima gambar menceritakan tentang Horner;s Syndrome. Kalau tidak silap jawapannya, maka kira betul lah jawapan aku, InsyaAllah,
Sekarang masuk ke sesi kedua, iaitu exam klinikal praktikal di mana setiap pelajar akan diberikan satu pesakit (yang duduk kat atas katil) untuk diperiksa peperiksaan klinikal untuk mengenalpasti penyakit yang dihadapi pesakit. Aku masuk ke dalam wad menjadi sebahagian daripada kumpulan yang kedua terawal untuk 'clinical examination'. Masuk dengan tenang sampai ke sebuah katil yang dijaga oleh Dr Nasywa(kalau tidak silap) dan seorang makcik yang menundukkan pandangannya dengan keadaan duduk di atas katil sambil kaki mengunjur ke hadapan.
Aku memasuki suasana itu dengan sebuah salam. Maka dijawab makcik tersebut dengan salam, Dr Nasywa pun sahut jugak. Aku terfikir sejenak, makcik ni nampak macam pening je, apa yang kawan aku seorang yang masuk awal (dalam kumpulan pertama) buat sampai terpinga-pinga makcik ni, mungkin silau kot. Sedetik itu juga, terus ku minta izin makcik itu untuk memeriksa mata kanannya dengan suluhan lampu. Didapati terdapat satu keputihan pada kanta mata. Aku main-main kan suluhan lampu sehingga ke kiri ke kanan untuk melihat 'iris shadow' (bayangan iris mata yang terhasil disebabkan kewujudan pantulan cahaya dari kanta mata) tidak lain dan tidak bukan untuk meyakinkan diagnosis ku iaitu Immature Senile Cataract. Aku tulis dengan yakin, InsyaAllah betul kot.
Secara ringkasnya, kami akan diuji dengan dua soalan, satu 'spot diagnosis' yang ditulis diagnosisnya selepas diperiksa mata dan satu lagi adalah kami perlu tunjuk ataupun demonstrasi kepada doktor yang bertugas macam mana nak periksa makcik ni secara klinikal. Dalam kes aku, aku kena periksa 'pupil' (ruangan mata yang membesar dan mengecil disebabkan pantulan cahaya), agak mudah lah sebenarnya, Alhamdulillah Allah permudahkan. Pemeriksaan ini boleh dikatakan antara yang paling mudah untuk dilakukan.
Alhamdulillah, makcik memberi kerjasama yang baik untuk tugas kedua aku memeriksa 'pupillary reaction' dan 'swinging light reflex test'. Pada mulanya, aku tersilap langkah, tetapi aku sempat membetulkannya sebelum doktor menegurku hehe. "Syukran Ya hagah", ku mengucapkan kalam penghargaan kepada beliau.
Selepas hampir 40 minit kami dikumpulkan dalam satu ruangan untuk menghabiskan peperiksaan bagi sahabat dan sahabiah yang lain, maka bermula lah ujian lisan atau lebih masyhur dengan sebutan: "Oral Exam". Bahang mula dirasai, masing-masing mula nampak cemas dan tidak dilupai 'syndrome' sebelum nak exam datang menziarahi seperti sakit perut, lapar dan sebagainya. Aku cuba menenangkan diri dengan membuka buku untuk dibaca. Hakikatnya, semua yang dibaca tak masuk dalam kepala, cuma itu satu wasilah untuk ku supaya bertenang dalam fatrah menunggu selama lebih 30 minit itu.
Selepas itu, kami dipanggil seorang demi seorang untuk bertemu dengan profesor-profesor yang akan menyoal kami tentang manhaj Ophthalmology. Mereka ingin tahu, adakah apa yang mereka ajarkan kepada kami menjadi kefahaman atau fakta semata-mata bagi kami.
Sedikit tentang peperiksaan lisan kali ini, setiap orang akan dipanggil dan dihadapkan dengan profesor-profesor department yang menjadi tenaga pengajar sepanjang Round Ophthal kami,(supaya Allah melimpahi usaha mereka atas pemberian ilmu perubatan kepada kami semua, Amin) dan setiap orang akan ditanya paling kurang 2 orang doktor dan salah seorang akan memainkan watak 'mask face' manakala seorang lagi akan membantu kita (bagi 'hint' lah sikit) untuk menjawab. Kalau ada doktor yang lebih, ia akan menjadi pemerhati sahaja, Alhamdulillah, dalam kes aku, aku dapat doktor yang baik (tak garang lah), Dr Aiman dan Dr Nasywa kalau tidak silap.
Hendak diceritakan agak tragis juga, maklumlah soalan yang didapati memang tidak kena pada bacaan selama 3 hari aku buka buku, haha. Ibrahnya, kena belajar awal sedikit supaya tidak lah kita ni memandang rendah pada peperiksaan dan bersedia bila-bila masa untuk menghadapi sesuatu peperiksaan.
Namun, Alhamdulillah, aku masih mampu menjawab soalan-soalan tersebut biarpun pembacaan ku agak kurang (taklah sampai senyap terus hehe) jika dibandingan dengan sahabat yang lain. Maklumlah, orang baca buku Medic, kita baca buku lain, haha.
Soalan-soalan yang aku kena soal selepas memilih sekeping kertas A4 yang dipotong kepada dua bahagian. Apabila dibelek ke ruangan yang bercetak, aku melihat tulisan sedikit sebanyak seperti di bawah:
1. Differential Diagnosis of Follicular conjunctivitis,
2. Diagnosis of Primary Open Angle Glaucoma,
3. Metabolic disorder that can cause corneal opacities,
4. Hyphema: Causes & Management
Sedikit termenung, sebab dalam keempat-empat soalan ini, hanya dua soalan aku tahu dengan 'detail' sedikit, yang lagi dua agak *blur lah, namun jawapan dia aku terfikir jugak time tu (on the spot). Alhamdulillah Allah nak bagi petunjuk dan aku boleh lah jawab, tetapi secara 'superficial' lah, tidaklah terperinci sangat.
Ku mulai jawapanku dengan soalan ke 4, seterusnya soalan ke 2, soalan nombor 1 dan akhir sekali yang paling 'blank' sekali soalan nombor 3. Memang target doktor untuk menggunakan setiap perkataan ku menjadi satu soalan. Dan dari soalan itu meleret ke soalan yang lain, sampai lah kita 'blank', haha. Memang semua teman kena macam tu, memang penutup kita ditutupi dengan penjelasan daripada doktor/profesor dan tidak dengan susunan ayat jawapan kita. Namun, teknik ini mampu membezakan antara kefahaman dan fakta semata-mata. 'Kamu tahu sahaja atau kamu faham?', seolah itu apa yang mereka ingin ketahui daripada aku dan sahabat-sahabat lain. Agak tertekan, namun aku keluar dengan satu ibrah yang baru, "Aku kena baca, hafal dan faham betul-betul!', hati terdetik merasai betapa luasnya dunia perubatan ini. Senyum.
Alhamdulillah a'la kulli hal, berakhirnya exam praktikal dan oral ini memberi impak kepada ku untuk cuba memahami Ophthalmology ini dengan lebih mendalam dan banyakkan membaca buku lain selain buku department. InsyaAllah, akan ku exam oral sekali lagi untuk Ophthalmology dalam 'exam Final' dua bulan lagi. Sekali lagi, akan bertemu lagi dengan cabaran ini, mudah-mudahan aku lebih bersedia untuk menghadapinya, InsyaAllah.
I'm still lacking a lot!!
Bismillah..salam semua...hari ini terkesan sedikit dengan satu perbualan dan lintasan memori ketika pulang ke Malaysia semasa proses evakuasi bulan Februari 2011..jari jemari ini terasa gatal nak menulis pengalaman diriku sebagai seorang pelajar Medic yg serba kekurangan dalam semua aspek yg diperlukan utk bergelar seorang doktor...
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Tidak kuingat berapa haribulan serta hari kejadian ini berlaku..namun, yang pasti peristiwa ini berlaku pada tengah2 bulan Februari ketika pihak kerajaan negeri memanggil para mahasiswa/wi Mesir untuk menghadiri satu taklimat ataupun lebih tepat..seminar bagi pengurusan pelajar2 ini utk kembali ke bumi Anbiya' ini...
Cerita ku ini tidak ada kaitan dgn tentatif2 program itu tetapi berkait rapat dengan tempat majlis itu diadakan..di Balai Islam, Lundang..Usai sudah majlis itu tamat..lantas ak bangkit dan melangkah menuju ke surau untuk menunaikan Solat Zuhur..Sesampainya ak di surau...terlintas di benakku..Subhaanallah, penuh!!..ak tidak sempat untuk mengikuti jemaah pertama...kulihat pelajar2 lain yg ingin solat menangguhkan niat mereka kerana kepadatan yang melampau di tempat solat itu...dan secara tidak langsung mata kami semua tertarik dgn sedikit jamuan kuih muih dan air kotak yg disediakan khas untuk para pelajar....apalagi..seranglah...
Sambil aku menjamah kuih muih itu, kedengaran ucapan salam bergema dari surau tersebut..."sudah siap tu..", fikirku sendirian sambil mempercepatkan kunyahan ku....Alhamdulillah, segar sikit lepas makan dan minum tengahari ni..baru terasa bersemangat nk beribadah..haha
Tanpa melengahkan masa, terus ak menuju ke destinasi yang sudah ku nampak dari jauh...kulintasi kaki lima dewan dengan langkah yang teratur dan agak tergesa-gesa....ketika inilah ak ternampak satu kelibat manusia....ya, seorang akhawat sedang duduk sambil kakinya terhayung-hayang di atas longkang di tepi kaki lima yang mana ketinggiannya mencecah hampir 1 meter sambil bersandarkan di sebelah tiang bangunan....dari jarak 1 meter drpdnya ak hanya menjeling selama beberapa saat sebelum ku tetapkan pandanganku 'straight' ke arah surau...ku melangkah dgn seimbang dan agak tergesa-gesa memikirkan abangku mungkin akan meninggalkan ku jika ak terlambat sikit...haha..handphone dah la terlupa nk bawa..
Sedang ak sibuk mengorak langkah ke hadapan...tiba2 sekujur tubuh jatuh lemah melintang dari sebelah kiri berkatilkan lantai kaki lima...."Ya Allah!!", jeritku perlahan kerana hampir2 ak melangkahnya dek kelajuan langkahku...."Apahal pulak perempuan ni tidur kt sini?, fikirku dalam terpinga-pinga...haha..ak pun agak kabur dgn situasi ini kerana perkara ini belum pernah berlaku walaupun sekali seumur hidupku...Tatkala itu, ak baru perasan yang akhawat ini tidak sedarkan diri.."pengsan kot", aku mula menduga....ku nampak REM (Rapid Eye Movement) jls kelihatan...gawat ni, walaupun ak bljr pun x habis lg, naluri kemanusiaan ak mencemaskan ku...bagaimana jika perkara ini lebih 'serious' drpd apa yg ak sangkakan....pada ketika itu, kulihat seorang ustaz menuju ke arah ku dr surau di hadapan....beliau tidak perasan agaknya si akhawat ini tidak sedarkan diri sehinggalah ak memanggilnya untuk meminta bantuan.....
"Dik2, bangun dik", ustaz itu cuba mengejutkan gadis itu..sebanyak tiga kali perkataan2 itu diulang...namun, tiada reaksi..."nasib baik...masih bernafas lg rupanya..", lega sedikit apabila ku menyedarinya dgn pemerhatian dari sudut yg dekat....ustz cuba lg mengejutkanya, tp tak berani sentuh...huhu..ak pun sama....selepas beberapa ketika, ak tak tahan lg tngk ustz ni...ak cuba mengejutkannya dgn menggerak-gerakkan bahunya sebanyak tiga kali...namun, gadis itu tidak juga terjaga.....
Ustz mula panik...ak pun cuba bertenang...."Ustz, boleh tggu sini meta..ana nok gi panggil akwt kt sura nuh", kataku dlm loghat Kelantan..."hal perempuan lg baik jika diserahkan kpd pihak perempuan", fikirku....lantas ku berlari ke arah surau dan meminta tolong drpd beberapa org ikhwah supaya memanggil beberapa akhawat yg berada di dlm surau...ak pun tak pasti, ada ke akhawat dlm surau??..Insyaallah ada lah seorang dua yang ambil bidang medic ni....
Selepas beberapa ketika, keluar dua tiga orang akhawat dari bilik sembahyang sebelah...dan terus bergegas untuk memberikan pertolongan...ak pun tak tahu...mrk ni Ustzah ke Doktor??..tak ada beza pun sbb semua bertudung labuh...kalau kt Mesir, susah benar nak nampak pljr medic akhwat bertudung labuh....sesudah itu, mrk memapah gadis tersebut dari belakang dan cuba menyedarkan gadis tersebut dgn percikan air sambil berselawat ke atas junjungan Baginda Rasulullah s.a.w. disertai dgn bacaan ayat2 suci al-Quran yg lain...selepas beberapa ketika, Alhamdulillah..sedar akhirnya gadis itu...ak pun terus berganjak dari kwsn itu dan terus ke surau untuk menunaikan solat Zuhur yang dah lama tertangguh..haha....syukur kpd Allah swt...
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Sesudah ak siap menunaikan solat...ku masih lg melihat beberapa akhwat sedang berkerumun di sekeliling gadis itu...wahh...tadi tiga orang saja..skrg, dah lebih sepuluh....mrk cuba menyegarkan gadis tersebut dan membantunya menghubungi keluarganya...Ya Allah, hati budi manusia mmg mudah tersentuh.....alamak, ak dah lewat ni...nanti kena tinggal pulak...haha.....
Ketika itu, ak terfikir-fikir....betapa ceteknya ilmu ku dan betapa banyaknya kekuranganku berbanding dgn mrk yg menghadiri majlis ini...layakkah ak dipanggil sebagai seorang mahasiswa yg selama ini kurang 'serious'; dalam menuntut ilmu...Subhaanallah...engkau telah memberikan ku satu harapan yg baru Ya Allah...Wallahu'lam~
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Tidak kuingat berapa haribulan serta hari kejadian ini berlaku..namun, yang pasti peristiwa ini berlaku pada tengah2 bulan Februari ketika pihak kerajaan negeri memanggil para mahasiswa/wi Mesir untuk menghadiri satu taklimat ataupun lebih tepat..seminar bagi pengurusan pelajar2 ini utk kembali ke bumi Anbiya' ini...
Cerita ku ini tidak ada kaitan dgn tentatif2 program itu tetapi berkait rapat dengan tempat majlis itu diadakan..di Balai Islam, Lundang..Usai sudah majlis itu tamat..lantas ak bangkit dan melangkah menuju ke surau untuk menunaikan Solat Zuhur..Sesampainya ak di surau...terlintas di benakku..Subhaanallah, penuh!!..ak tidak sempat untuk mengikuti jemaah pertama...kulihat pelajar2 lain yg ingin solat menangguhkan niat mereka kerana kepadatan yang melampau di tempat solat itu...dan secara tidak langsung mata kami semua tertarik dgn sedikit jamuan kuih muih dan air kotak yg disediakan khas untuk para pelajar....apalagi..seranglah...
Sambil aku menjamah kuih muih itu, kedengaran ucapan salam bergema dari surau tersebut..."sudah siap tu..", fikirku sendirian sambil mempercepatkan kunyahan ku....Alhamdulillah, segar sikit lepas makan dan minum tengahari ni..baru terasa bersemangat nk beribadah..haha
Tanpa melengahkan masa, terus ak menuju ke destinasi yang sudah ku nampak dari jauh...kulintasi kaki lima dewan dengan langkah yang teratur dan agak tergesa-gesa....ketika inilah ak ternampak satu kelibat manusia....ya, seorang akhawat sedang duduk sambil kakinya terhayung-hayang di atas longkang di tepi kaki lima yang mana ketinggiannya mencecah hampir 1 meter sambil bersandarkan di sebelah tiang bangunan....dari jarak 1 meter drpdnya ak hanya menjeling selama beberapa saat sebelum ku tetapkan pandanganku 'straight' ke arah surau...ku melangkah dgn seimbang dan agak tergesa-gesa memikirkan abangku mungkin akan meninggalkan ku jika ak terlambat sikit...haha..handphone dah la terlupa nk bawa..
Sedang ak sibuk mengorak langkah ke hadapan...tiba2 sekujur tubuh jatuh lemah melintang dari sebelah kiri berkatilkan lantai kaki lima...."Ya Allah!!", jeritku perlahan kerana hampir2 ak melangkahnya dek kelajuan langkahku...."Apahal pulak perempuan ni tidur kt sini?, fikirku dalam terpinga-pinga...haha..ak pun agak kabur dgn situasi ini kerana perkara ini belum pernah berlaku walaupun sekali seumur hidupku...Tatkala itu, ak baru perasan yang akhawat ini tidak sedarkan diri.."pengsan kot", aku mula menduga....ku nampak REM (Rapid Eye Movement) jls kelihatan...gawat ni, walaupun ak bljr pun x habis lg, naluri kemanusiaan ak mencemaskan ku...bagaimana jika perkara ini lebih 'serious' drpd apa yg ak sangkakan....pada ketika itu, kulihat seorang ustaz menuju ke arah ku dr surau di hadapan....beliau tidak perasan agaknya si akhawat ini tidak sedarkan diri sehinggalah ak memanggilnya untuk meminta bantuan.....
"Dik2, bangun dik", ustaz itu cuba mengejutkan gadis itu..sebanyak tiga kali perkataan2 itu diulang...namun, tiada reaksi..."nasib baik...masih bernafas lg rupanya..", lega sedikit apabila ku menyedarinya dgn pemerhatian dari sudut yg dekat....ustz cuba lg mengejutkanya, tp tak berani sentuh...huhu..ak pun sama....selepas beberapa ketika, ak tak tahan lg tngk ustz ni...ak cuba mengejutkannya dgn menggerak-gerakkan bahunya sebanyak tiga kali...namun, gadis itu tidak juga terjaga.....
Ustz mula panik...ak pun cuba bertenang...."Ustz, boleh tggu sini meta..ana nok gi panggil akwt kt sura nuh", kataku dlm loghat Kelantan..."hal perempuan lg baik jika diserahkan kpd pihak perempuan", fikirku....lantas ku berlari ke arah surau dan meminta tolong drpd beberapa org ikhwah supaya memanggil beberapa akhawat yg berada di dlm surau...ak pun tak pasti, ada ke akhawat dlm surau??..Insyaallah ada lah seorang dua yang ambil bidang medic ni....
Selepas beberapa ketika, keluar dua tiga orang akhawat dari bilik sembahyang sebelah...dan terus bergegas untuk memberikan pertolongan...ak pun tak tahu...mrk ni Ustzah ke Doktor??..tak ada beza pun sbb semua bertudung labuh...kalau kt Mesir, susah benar nak nampak pljr medic akhwat bertudung labuh....sesudah itu, mrk memapah gadis tersebut dari belakang dan cuba menyedarkan gadis tersebut dgn percikan air sambil berselawat ke atas junjungan Baginda Rasulullah s.a.w. disertai dgn bacaan ayat2 suci al-Quran yg lain...selepas beberapa ketika, Alhamdulillah..sedar akhirnya gadis itu...ak pun terus berganjak dari kwsn itu dan terus ke surau untuk menunaikan solat Zuhur yang dah lama tertangguh..haha....syukur kpd Allah swt...
........................................................
Sesudah ak siap menunaikan solat...ku masih lg melihat beberapa akhwat sedang berkerumun di sekeliling gadis itu...wahh...tadi tiga orang saja..skrg, dah lebih sepuluh....mrk cuba menyegarkan gadis tersebut dan membantunya menghubungi keluarganya...Ya Allah, hati budi manusia mmg mudah tersentuh.....alamak, ak dah lewat ni...nanti kena tinggal pulak...haha.....
Ketika itu, ak terfikir-fikir....betapa ceteknya ilmu ku dan betapa banyaknya kekuranganku berbanding dgn mrk yg menghadiri majlis ini...layakkah ak dipanggil sebagai seorang mahasiswa yg selama ini kurang 'serious'; dalam menuntut ilmu...Subhaanallah...engkau telah memberikan ku satu harapan yg baru Ya Allah...Wallahu'lam~
Bengkel Penulisan? Perlu ke?
Bismillahirrahmanirrahim..
Sudah lama tidak aku conteng ruangan ini, tetapi kali ini ingin sekali untuk menulis sesuatu bagi peringatan kepada diri sendiri pada masa hadapan InsyaAllah.
Bacalah (wahai Muhammad) dengan nama Tuhanmu yang menciptakan (sekalian makhluk), Ia menciptakan manusia dari sebuku darah beku; Bacalah, dan Tuhanmu Yang Maha Pemurah, Yang mengajar manusia melalui pena dan tulisan, Ia mengajarkan manusia apa yang tidak diketahuinya. (Surah Al'Alaq: 1-5)
Ayat yang jelas mengajar manusia kepentingan ilmu dalam kehidupan kita untuk meraih kejayaan sama ada di dunia mahupun di akhirat yang kekal sejati. Kita perlu sepakat bersama iaitu setiap ilmu dan kefahaman itu datangnya daripada Allah Azzawajalla dan mereka yang boleh dilihat secara zatnya hanyalah wasilah semata-mata.
Tambahan pula, disebutkan juga istilah pen ataupun tulisan yang sehingga sekarang pelbagai jenis ilmu pengetahuan telah dikembangkan. Hanya melalui penulisan, manusia mampu berubah daripada buta huruf kepada celik membaca, daripada jahil kepada alim dan daripada kekaburan kepada pencerahan.
Baru semalam (Hari Sabtu,23 Mac 2013) aku menghadiri satu program PERUBATAN yang bernama; Bengkel Penulisan dengan kerjasama syarikat mustread. Aku sangka ini hanyalah satu ruangan untuk aku mempelajari teknik-teknik untuk menulis dengan lebih baik, namun ianya melebihi jangkauan minda dan ilusi apabila pengisi-pengisinya terus meletakkan target bahawa setiap orang mampu menghasilkan sebuah buku dalam tempoh hanya 2 bulan! Sesuatu yang baru padaku, terkial-kial dan keliru dengan satu persoalan yang satu, "betulkah aku ni mampu?"
Pelbagai persoalan bermain di mata, fikiran dan hati tidak ketinggalan, aku masih belum pasti dan mengerti, boleh kah? Mampu kah? Ada orang nak bacakah? Memang stress kalau macam ni..Tetapi, apa salahnya kalau kita mencuba. Dan aku ingin bermula dengan menulis dahulu dalam blog, seperti tulisan ini.
Namun, bukan itu perkara yang aku hendak ketengahkan dalam coretan ini, malahan lebih kepada input-input yang aku perolehi daripada bengkel tersebut. Daripada nota tersebut terbiar dalam kertas bersaiz A4 yang aku pasti lama-kelamaan akan hilang luput di minda dan pandangan. Eloklah sekiranya aku mengadaptasikannya dalam blog ini untuk manfaat yang berpanjangan.
Mula-mula, akan aku sebutkan tentang beberapa aspek yang diperlukan perlu untuk menulis sebuah karya.Pertama sekali, kita memerlukan perancangan dalam menentukan kategori. Buku apa yang kita hendak tulis, tentang apa, kesannya dan lain-lain. Dalam konteks ini, tetapkan objektif yang paling rendah untuk permudahkan penulisan dan pengecilan skop seperti contoh, kategori kita adalah 'Keluarga', tetapkan objektif buku tersebut adalah untuk kegunaan bagi para ibu.
Yang kedua, membina rangka buku. Kami dinasihati supaya menggunakan teknik 'co-author' untuk menulis buku, khususnya buku pertama yang hendak ditulis. Jumlah co-author hendaklah tidak melebihi 3 hingga 4 orang di mana setiap orang ada tugas masing-masing untuk penulisan buku tersebut. Pembinaan rangka buku boleh kita ambil idea daripada sumber yang berdekatan, contohnya kita bertanya soalan di FB dan mendapat beberapa komen tentang isu yang diketengahkan, maka bolehlah kita mengumpul komen-komen tersebut membentuk kerangka penulisan.
Yang ketiga adalah kaedah adaptasi. Kaedah ini biasa digunakan seperti dalam penulisan blog di mana masing-masing mengolah dan menyusun kembali ayat-ayat (adaptasi) supaya membawa maksud yang sama tetapi tidak sama dengan penulisan yang sebenar. Antara ciri-ciri adaptasi adalah:
1. Susunan perkataan demi perkataan
2. Susunan ayat demi ayat
3. Susunan perenggan demi perenggan
4. Susunan bab demi bab
Jika ciri-ciri di atas ada yang sama dengan tulisan karya yang asal dari segi ayatnya, perkataannya, perenggannya mahupun babnya, maka ia telah menyalahi dan mencerobohi hak cipta penulisan yang asal.Namun, perlu diingati, proses tidak boleh diadaptasi kerana setiap proses ditentukan prioritinya, jadi tidak boleh sewenang-wenangnya kita mengubah struktur susunannya kerana ianya akan rosak dan mungkin sekali tidak akan difahami.
Sebenarnya, ketiga-tiga perkara di atas adalah sebahagian perkara yang diketengahkan dalam perbincangan kami untuk menunjukkan bahawa menulis sebuah buku itu tidak terlalu susah dan tidak juga terlalu senang sepertimana yang dikhabarkan oleh masyarakat. Kita akan merasa susah jika kita hendak menulis buku yang pertama, tetapi apabila kita sudah menyiapkan buku pertama, maka buku kedua sudah menjadi semakin senang dan begitulah seterusnya.
Apa yang ingin digariskan disini ialah kita sepatutnya bermula dari sekarang, bukan asyik memikirkan bila aku hendak menulis. Setiap perkara memerlukan satu titik permulaan. Setiap kejayaan dimulakan dengan satu langkah permulaan. Setiap titik dakwat akan menjadi huruf dan setiap huruf akan menjadi perkataan dan setiap perkataan akan menjadi ayat dan setiap ayat akan menjadi satu perenggan dan begitulah seterusnya.
Resolusi aku menerusi bengkel ini hanya satu, 'biar sedikit asal menjadi'. Tidak kira jika anda sibuk, tidak cukup masa, malas, tiada idea, sekarang ni orang tidak baca dah buku, orang baca melalui internet permintaan buku Melayu kurang dan lain-lain lagi tidak perlu diberi perhatian kerana setiap orang yang berilmu berhak untuk menulis. Cuma pastikan ilmu dan cara itu adalah betul dalam proses mendapatkannya dan tidak salah dari segi logik akal dan syariat yang ditetapkan. Dan sudah tentulah jangan ditulis ilmu sesat, nanti tersesat jalan kehidupan. Tips terakhir, tulislah sedikit demi sedikit, biarpun hanya nota ringkas, diari seharian, surat luahan perasaan. Yang penting, kita cuba untuk menulis dan menyampaikan kefahaman kita untuk manfaat orang lain.
Sudah lama tidak aku conteng ruangan ini, tetapi kali ini ingin sekali untuk menulis sesuatu bagi peringatan kepada diri sendiri pada masa hadapan InsyaAllah.
Bacalah (wahai Muhammad) dengan nama Tuhanmu yang menciptakan (sekalian makhluk), Ia menciptakan manusia dari sebuku darah beku; Bacalah, dan Tuhanmu Yang Maha Pemurah, Yang mengajar manusia melalui pena dan tulisan, Ia mengajarkan manusia apa yang tidak diketahuinya. (Surah Al'Alaq: 1-5)
Ayat yang jelas mengajar manusia kepentingan ilmu dalam kehidupan kita untuk meraih kejayaan sama ada di dunia mahupun di akhirat yang kekal sejati. Kita perlu sepakat bersama iaitu setiap ilmu dan kefahaman itu datangnya daripada Allah Azzawajalla dan mereka yang boleh dilihat secara zatnya hanyalah wasilah semata-mata.
Tambahan pula, disebutkan juga istilah pen ataupun tulisan yang sehingga sekarang pelbagai jenis ilmu pengetahuan telah dikembangkan. Hanya melalui penulisan, manusia mampu berubah daripada buta huruf kepada celik membaca, daripada jahil kepada alim dan daripada kekaburan kepada pencerahan.
Baru semalam (Hari Sabtu,23 Mac 2013) aku menghadiri satu program PERUBATAN yang bernama; Bengkel Penulisan dengan kerjasama syarikat mustread. Aku sangka ini hanyalah satu ruangan untuk aku mempelajari teknik-teknik untuk menulis dengan lebih baik, namun ianya melebihi jangkauan minda dan ilusi apabila pengisi-pengisinya terus meletakkan target bahawa setiap orang mampu menghasilkan sebuah buku dalam tempoh hanya 2 bulan! Sesuatu yang baru padaku, terkial-kial dan keliru dengan satu persoalan yang satu, "betulkah aku ni mampu?"
Pelbagai persoalan bermain di mata, fikiran dan hati tidak ketinggalan, aku masih belum pasti dan mengerti, boleh kah? Mampu kah? Ada orang nak bacakah? Memang stress kalau macam ni..Tetapi, apa salahnya kalau kita mencuba. Dan aku ingin bermula dengan menulis dahulu dalam blog, seperti tulisan ini.
Namun, bukan itu perkara yang aku hendak ketengahkan dalam coretan ini, malahan lebih kepada input-input yang aku perolehi daripada bengkel tersebut. Daripada nota tersebut terbiar dalam kertas bersaiz A4 yang aku pasti lama-kelamaan akan hilang luput di minda dan pandangan. Eloklah sekiranya aku mengadaptasikannya dalam blog ini untuk manfaat yang berpanjangan.
Mula-mula, akan aku sebutkan tentang beberapa aspek yang diperlukan perlu untuk menulis sebuah karya.Pertama sekali, kita memerlukan perancangan dalam menentukan kategori. Buku apa yang kita hendak tulis, tentang apa, kesannya dan lain-lain. Dalam konteks ini, tetapkan objektif yang paling rendah untuk permudahkan penulisan dan pengecilan skop seperti contoh, kategori kita adalah 'Keluarga', tetapkan objektif buku tersebut adalah untuk kegunaan bagi para ibu.
Yang kedua, membina rangka buku. Kami dinasihati supaya menggunakan teknik 'co-author' untuk menulis buku, khususnya buku pertama yang hendak ditulis. Jumlah co-author hendaklah tidak melebihi 3 hingga 4 orang di mana setiap orang ada tugas masing-masing untuk penulisan buku tersebut. Pembinaan rangka buku boleh kita ambil idea daripada sumber yang berdekatan, contohnya kita bertanya soalan di FB dan mendapat beberapa komen tentang isu yang diketengahkan, maka bolehlah kita mengumpul komen-komen tersebut membentuk kerangka penulisan.
Yang ketiga adalah kaedah adaptasi. Kaedah ini biasa digunakan seperti dalam penulisan blog di mana masing-masing mengolah dan menyusun kembali ayat-ayat (adaptasi) supaya membawa maksud yang sama tetapi tidak sama dengan penulisan yang sebenar. Antara ciri-ciri adaptasi adalah:
1. Susunan perkataan demi perkataan
2. Susunan ayat demi ayat
3. Susunan perenggan demi perenggan
4. Susunan bab demi bab
Jika ciri-ciri di atas ada yang sama dengan tulisan karya yang asal dari segi ayatnya, perkataannya, perenggannya mahupun babnya, maka ia telah menyalahi dan mencerobohi hak cipta penulisan yang asal.Namun, perlu diingati, proses tidak boleh diadaptasi kerana setiap proses ditentukan prioritinya, jadi tidak boleh sewenang-wenangnya kita mengubah struktur susunannya kerana ianya akan rosak dan mungkin sekali tidak akan difahami.
Sebenarnya, ketiga-tiga perkara di atas adalah sebahagian perkara yang diketengahkan dalam perbincangan kami untuk menunjukkan bahawa menulis sebuah buku itu tidak terlalu susah dan tidak juga terlalu senang sepertimana yang dikhabarkan oleh masyarakat. Kita akan merasa susah jika kita hendak menulis buku yang pertama, tetapi apabila kita sudah menyiapkan buku pertama, maka buku kedua sudah menjadi semakin senang dan begitulah seterusnya.
Apa yang ingin digariskan disini ialah kita sepatutnya bermula dari sekarang, bukan asyik memikirkan bila aku hendak menulis. Setiap perkara memerlukan satu titik permulaan. Setiap kejayaan dimulakan dengan satu langkah permulaan. Setiap titik dakwat akan menjadi huruf dan setiap huruf akan menjadi perkataan dan setiap perkataan akan menjadi ayat dan setiap ayat akan menjadi satu perenggan dan begitulah seterusnya.
Resolusi aku menerusi bengkel ini hanya satu, 'biar sedikit asal menjadi'. Tidak kira jika anda sibuk, tidak cukup masa, malas, tiada idea, sekarang ni orang tidak baca dah buku, orang baca melalui internet permintaan buku Melayu kurang dan lain-lain lagi tidak perlu diberi perhatian kerana setiap orang yang berilmu berhak untuk menulis. Cuma pastikan ilmu dan cara itu adalah betul dalam proses mendapatkannya dan tidak salah dari segi logik akal dan syariat yang ditetapkan. Dan sudah tentulah jangan ditulis ilmu sesat, nanti tersesat jalan kehidupan. Tips terakhir, tulislah sedikit demi sedikit, biarpun hanya nota ringkas, diari seharian, surat luahan perasaan. Yang penting, kita cuba untuk menulis dan menyampaikan kefahaman kita untuk manfaat orang lain.
Friday, April 20, 2012
Syair yang membuat Imam Ahmad Menangis.
إذا ما قال لي ربي أما استحييت تعصيني ؟
Apabila tiba saat tuhanku berkata padaku: Tidakkah engkau malu melakukan maksiat kepadaku?
وتُـخفي الذنبَ عن خلقيَ وبالعصيانِ تأتيني
Engkau menyembunyikan dosa dari makhlukku sedang dengan dosa engkau datang berjumpaku?
فكيف أجيبُ يا ويحي ومن ذا سوف يحميني ؟
Maka bagaimanalah aku boleh jawab dan siapalah yang boleh mempertahanku?
أسلي النفس بالآمالِ من حينٍ الى حيني ..
Aku sentiasa mendamaikan perasaanku dengan harapan-harapan dari detik ke detik.
وأنسى ما وراء الموت ماذا بعد تكفيني
Sedang aku lupa apa yang berlaku selepas kematian apalah yang cukup untukku.
كأني قد ضمنتُ العيش ليس الموت يأتيني
Seolah-olahnya aku telah dapat menjamin akan terus hidup dan kematian tidak akan datang.
وجاءت سكرة الموت الشديدة من سيحميني ؟
Jika tibalah saat sakit kematian siapalah yang boleh menahannya dariku?
نظرتُ الى الوُجوهِ أليـس منهم من سيفدينـــي؟
Aku hanya mampu melihat wajah-wajah di depanku adakah seseorang di kalangan mereka yang boleh menebusku?
سأسأل ما الذي قدمت في دنياي ينجيني
Aku bakal ditanya apalah yang telah aku persembahkah di duniaku dahulu yang boleh menyelamatkan daku.
فكيف إجابتي من بعد ما فرطت في ديني
Bagaimanalah jawapanku setelah mana aku mengabaikan urusan agamaku?
ويا ويحي ألــــم أسمع كلام الله يدعوني ؟
Hai kesalnya apakah aku tidak pernah mendengar kalam Allah yang menyeruku?
ألــــم أسمع لما قد جاء في قاف ويسِ
Apakah aku tidak pernah mendengar kandungan surah Qaf dan surah Ya Sin
ألـــم أسمع بيوم الحشر يوم الجمع و الديني
Apakah aku tidak pernah mendengar tentang hari perhimpunan, perkumpulan dan pembalasan.
ألـــم أسمع مُنادي الموت يدعوني يناديني
Tidak pernahkah aku mendengar penyeru kematian yang mengajakku dan memanggilku?
فيا ربــــاه عبدُ تــائبُ من ذا سيؤويني ؟
Wahai tuhanku inilah seorang hamba yang kembali siapalah yang sanggup menerimanya?
سوى رب غفور واسع للحقِ يهديني
Kecuali tuhan yang maha pengampun, yang maha kaya, yang sentiasa memberiku pedoman ke jalan sebenar.
أتيتُ إليكَ فارحمني وثقــّـل في موازيني
Aku mendatangi mu maka kasihanilah daku dan beratkanlah neraca timbanganku.
وخفف في جزائي أنتَ أرجـى من يجازيني
Ringankalah pembalasanku kerana engkaulah sahajalah paling diharap kebaikannya apabila melakukan pembalas
Thursday, March 15, 2012
Infection in Pregnancy
Bacteria of the Female Genital Tract
- Upper tract – sterile unless infected by ascending bacteria or hematogenous spread
- Lower tract – colonized with a mixture of commensal and pathogenic flora, which are similar to skin and fecal flora
- Lactobacilli species predominate Þ produce and thrive in acid environment (pH 3.8-4.2)
- changes in bacterial environment can affect pregnancy; Bacterial vaginalis (BV) Þ associated with preterm delivery
- Chloramphenicol – Grey Baby Syndrome; Tetracyclines – bone effects, dental stains; Quinolones – animal arthropathy/stunting; Sulfonamides – risk of neonatal jaundice (unsafe at term, but safe otherwise); Nitrofurantoin – G6PD deficient anemia; Aminoglycosides – otoxtocity Þ used in neonates for gram negative bacteria; no alternatives
- Most infections are no more severe during pregnancy than in the absence of pregnany; none are less severe
- some are more severe (reason unknown): polio, influenza, varicella, amebioasis, listeria, malaria, coccidiomycosis
- Maternal Changes – minimal changes in immunoglobulins; no clear immune dysfunction
- Ý risk of upper respiratory tract infections(URI) and urinary tract infections(UTI), tendency toward earlier systemic invasion, and Ý risk for sepsis and life-threatening pulmonary fluid shift and adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)
- Ý risk of URI: possibly due to ß plasma oncotic pressure, Ý O2 demands, ß difference in alveolar closing pressures
- Ý risk of enteric infections: possibly due to altered gastric acidity and motility
- Teratogenic Infections–acronym "TORCH" Þ Toxoplasmosis, Other (Syphilis), Rubella Cytomegalovirus, and Herpes virus
- also trypanosomiasis, coxsackie virus, common colds, varicella, parvovirus B19, Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis (VEE)
- Toxoplasmosis – protozoan with tachyzoite, tissue cyst and oocyst phases: oocyst is infectious form
- acquired from undercooked meat and aerosolized cat feces Þ "Kitty Litter Disease"
- Maternal Symptoms – often asymptomatic; adenopathy malaise; only primary infection is dangerous to fetus unless immunosuppression causes recurrent attacks Þ fetal lesions and life-threatening maternal disease
- Neonatal Symptoms – CNS calcification, hydrocephaly, hepatic/splenic lesions, retinitis
- Diagnosis – history and serologic investigations, Ig assays and PCR of amniotic fluid and fetal blood
- Treatment – pyrimethamine/sulfadoxine or spiromycin; spiromycin does not cross the blood brain barrier
- Syphilis – STD caused by Treponema pallidum (9/100,000 women); can cause miscarriage
- Maternal Symptoms – same as non-pregnant pts.
- Neonatal Sympt.–bony lesions, jaundice, hepatosplenomegaly, mulberry molars, saber-shins, saddle nose, rhinorrhea
- Diagnosis – darkfield microscopy, serology of amniotic fluid and maternal or neonatal CSF
- Treatment–penicillin according to stage and HIV status (the only effective treatment–may have to desensitise if allergic)
- Rubella – virus, fetal exposure is dangerous through week 20; 50% affected if exposed during 1st month, 10% after third
- Maternal Symptoms – minimal, rash, fever and mild adnopathy
- Neonatal Symptoms – cataracts, deafness, cardiac lesions, mental retardation, growth restriction
- Diagnosis – serologic testing
- Treatment – no effective treatment; vaccination program(RA 27/3 live virus); pregnancy interruption
- Cytomegalovirus – DNA herpesvirus; most prevalent cause for neonatal infections Þ 0.2 – 2 % of all live births; 10% result in clinical disease, 60% seroprevelance; spread by secretions, transfusion or vertically
- Maternal Symptoms – asymptomatic, mild mono-like illness with or without jaundice, primary infections most dangerous but reactivation accounts for almost ½ of infections; life threatening in immunosuppressed
- Neonatal Symptoms – hepatosplenomegaly, petechial skin lesions "blueberry muffin" chorioretinitis, hydrocephaly, hydrops, CNHS calcifications, growth restriction, deafness, neurobehavioral damage and death
- Diagnosis – serologic testing, antibody fixation testing, ultrasound PCR testing of amniotic fluid and fetal blood
- Treatment – no clearly effective treatments; future drugs Þ anti-retrovirals and hyperimmune gamma globulin
Sexually Transmitted Diseases – similar risk as other sexually active women
- Herpes Simplex Type 2–rarely teratogenic; vertical intrapartum transmission, primary infection in mother most dangerous
- Neonatal Symptoms – cataracts, microcephaly, growth restriction, encephalitis, pneumonia and skin lesions
- Treatment–cesarean if active lesions present; antiviral therapy for newborns and mothers; 25% of babies at risk infected
- Gonorrhea – dissemination more common if pregnant
- Congenial Symptoms – Neonatal opthalmitis can lead to blindness, sepsis, meningitis or death;
- Diagnosis – DNA probe and confirmatory culture
- Treatment – treat with 2nd generation cephalosporins
- Chlamydia – late onset endometritis in mother and conjunctivitis and pneumonia in the newborn
- Diagnosis – DNA probe and confirmatory culture
- Treatment – Erythromycin; Tetracycline is contraindicated during pregnancy
- Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)–Ý lesion growth may be enhanced by estrogen, may obstruct canal and bleeding may be sufficient to require cesarean section; pediatric laryngeal papillomatosis may occur
- HIV – 4th leading cause of death in women of childbearing age; maternal course is unaffected by pregnancy
- vertical transmission is 30% without maternal treatment; maternal antiviral therapy reduces vertical transmission
- Diagnosis – serologic testing, PCR for viral load
- Urinary Tract Infections
- more common in pregnancy because of hormonally mediated ureteral motility changes and mechanical obstruction
- usually caused by a single organism (gram negative enteric bacilli: E. coli, Klebsiella species, Group B Strep etc.)
- 2-7 % incidence of UTI; 25 progress to pyelonephritis if untreated
- Maternal Sympt.–can be asymptomatic, dysuria, frequent urination, fever, pain, urosepsis, associated with UTI and prematurity
- Treatment – oral antibiotics for lower tract infection; IV antibiotics for inpatients Þ emergency
- Chorioamnionitis – 1-2% pregnancies; usu. polymicrobial, occasionally single strain (group B strep, gonococcus, listeria)
- Risk Factors – amniorrhexis, cerclage, labor duration, internal monitoring, exams, colonization by common pathogens
- Maternal Symptoms – fever, labor tachycardia, tenderness
- Neonatal Symptoms – cerebral palsy
- Diagnosis – WBC, CRP, amniocentesis and post facto placental culture and pathology
- Treatment – delivery and broad spectrum antibiotics
- Group B strep – gram positive bacterium with 10-20% colonization, frequent status change in women
- Maternal Symptoms – asymptomatic, urinary infections and endometritis
- Neonatal Symptoms – sepsis, pneumonia, late meningitis
- Diagnosis – culture with antenatal screening protocols; prophylactic treatment with intrapartum N penicillin
- Episiotomy Complications – uncommon; infections (0.05%), dehiscence (3-4%)
- polymicrobial pathogens with enteric anaerobes producing more sever cases
- Maternal Symptoms – fever, pain, purulence, incontinence, abscess
- Neonatal Effects – fistula formation, necrotizing fasciitis, sepsis
- Treatment – removal of sutures, debreedement, broad-spectrum antibiotics
- Peurperal Infections (Post Birth Infection) – polymicrobial, aerobes, rarely Group A streptococcus
- Symptoms – fever, uterine tenderness, foul lochia (discharge of tissue, blood and mucus following child birth)
- often self limiting; severe infections have sepsis, abscess, septic pelvic thrombophlebitis (SPT) and death
- Diagnosis – clinical, blood or cervical cultures
- Treatment - broad spectrum IV antibiotics; heparin for SPT
Antimicrobial revision
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Background
Divided by mode of action
1. inhibit cell wall synthesis – penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, vancomycin, bacitracin, miconazole, ketoconazole, clotrimazole
2. increase permeability of cell membrane – polymyxin, nystatin, amphotericin B
3. reversibly inhibit protein synthesis by affecting ribosomes 30 S and 50 S (bacteriostatic) – chloramphenicol, tetracyclines, macrolides, clindamycin
4. alter protein synthesis via 30 S ribosomes (bactericidal) – aminoglycosides
5. inhibit nucleic acids – rifampin, quinolones
6. antimetabolites – trimethoprim, sulfonamides
7. nucleic acid analogs – act on viruses – acyclovir, zidovudine, ganciclovir
Scanning electron m icrographs illustrating external features of the rod-shaped bacterium E. coli. The top image above is from: http://www.uq.oz.au/nanoworld. The lower image above is from: http://www.slic2.wsu.edu:82/hurlbert/micro101/pages/Chap2.html#two_bact_groups
PENICILLINS (Beta Lactams)
General side-effects
1. Most important are hypersensitivity and anaphylaxis. Penicillins are the most common cause of drug allergy. All types, dosages and forms of administration can potentially cause allergic reactions. Cross-reactions among the penicillins and between them and the cephalosporins are not uncommon.
2. Local reactions to intramuscular injection may be seen. Oral administration may cause nausea and diarrhea.
3. Toxic effects are minimal.
Penicillin G and V
1. effective against
a. Gram-positive cocci (Streptococcus, Neisseria meningitidis, but not Enterococcus)
b. Trepenoma pallidum (syphilis)
c. Borrelia burgdorferi (Lyme disease)
d. some anaerobes (Clostridium, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Actinomyces, Bacillus anthracis, Listeria) – not Bacteroides fragilis
2. Susceptible to penicillinase and so not effective against Staphylococcus aureus
3. Given orally (penicillin V less vulnerable to gastric acid) orparenterally; adding procaine or benzathine prolongs the effect of the penicillin. Best absorption is on an empty stomach.
4. Uses
a. To treat infections by above bacteria
b. As prophylaxis to prevent recurrent rheumatic fever, and in contacts of patients with syphilis, gonorrhea and streptococcal infections
c. Used as prophylaxis for infective endocarditis for susceptible people before dental or surgical procedures
5. Interactions – probenecid causes increased concentration
6. Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction
a. Seen in the majority of patients with secondary syphilis on receiving the first dose of penicillin
b. Flu-like symptoms – chills, fever, muscle aches, headache, joint pain – with enhanced color of the lesions of syphilis
c. Lasts for up to 48 hours and does not recur with later doses
d. May be due to antigens released by breakdown of the spirochetes
e. Not a reason to stop penicillin treatment; aspirin will help with symptoms
Penicillinase-resistant penicillins
1. Examples are methicillin, nafcillin, oxacillin, cloxacillin, and dicloxacillin
2. Effective against Gram-positive cocci (less so than penicillin V or G), including Staphylococcus aureus
3. MRSA = methicillin resistant S. aureus are treated by vancomycin.
4. Given orally (best absorption is on an empty stomach) andparenterally
5. Methicillin may cause interstitial nephritis.
Ampicillin, etc.
1. Examples are ampicillin, amoxicillin, bacampicillin
2. Effective also against some Gram-negative organisms – i.e. Hemophilus, E. coli, Proteus, also Salmonella and Listeria
3. Susceptible to b-lactamase – and so not effective for Staph. infections
4. Given orally (best is on an empty stomach) and parenterally
5. Ampicillin causes a rash in patients with infectious mononucleosis. Allopurinol will also increase chances of a rash with ampicillin.
Ampicillin and clavulanic acid
1. Clavulanic acid inactivates b-lactamase and so prevents breakdown of the antibiotic
2. Thus, the compound is effective against Staph. organisms.
Anti-Pseudomonas penicillins
1. Examples are carbenicillin and ticarcillin
2. Effective also against Pseudomonas, Enterobacter and Proteus
3. Susceptible to b-lactamase
4. Carbenicillin increases risk of heart failure, due to its ability to causehypernatremia and hypokalemia. It also interferes with aggregation of platelets. Ticarcillin has fewer side effects and so is preferred; it is given orally and parenterally.
5. A preparation of ticarcillin and clavulanic acid (for parenteral use) is more effective against Bacteroides, S. aureus and Gram-negative bacilli.
Broad-spectrum penicillins
1. Examples are mezlocillin and piperacillin
2. Effective also against Klebsiella and some other Gram-negative organisms
3. Susceptible to b-lactamase
4. Given only parenterally
CEPHALOSPORINS
General information
1. Most are given orally, intramuscularly or intravenously. Cephalothin is painful when injected intramuscularly and so should be used intravenously only.
2. Need to reduce dose in cases of kidney dysfunction
3. Cefuroxime, moxalactam, cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, cefepime and ceftizoxime are found in therapeutic concentrations in the Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF).
4. Cephalosporins cross the placenta.
5. Uses
a. As treatment for bacteria as given below
b. Prophylaxis for surgery
6. Side effects
a. Hypersensitivity reactions, as with penicillins; is cross-reactivity with penicillins
b. Diarrhea
7. Toxic effects – renal damage including acute tubular necrosis
8. Interactions - risk of nephrotoxicity increased with aminoglycosides
First generation
1. Examples are cephalothin, cefazolin, cephalexin and cefadroxil. The first two are given parenterally, the second two orally.
2. Effective against Gram-positive organisms (not including MRSA, S. epidermidis or Enterococcus) with slight activity against Gram-negative organisms (E. coli, Moraxella, Klebsiella, Proteus)
Second generation
1. Examples are cefoxitin, cefotetan, cefmanadole, cefuroxime, cefonicid and ceforanide that are given parenterally and cefaclor and loracarbef that can be given orally.
2. More effective against Gram-negative and less against Gram-positive than first generation cephalosporins; some are good against Bacteroides
Third generation
1. Examples are ceftazidime, cefoperazone, cefotaxime, ceftizoxime and ceftriaxone that are given parenterally, and cefpodoxime that can be given orally.
2. More effective against Gram-negative and less against Gram-positive than second generation cephalosporins, especially Enterobacter; some are good against Pseudomonas
3. Moxalactam can cause extensive hemorrhage.
Fourth generation
1. The only example available is cefepime, given parenterally.
2. Wider range than third generation and more stable against b-lactamase
CARBAPENEMS
Imipenem
1. A b-lactam antibiotic with a wide spectrum of activity; mode of action like penicillins and cephalosporins
2. Used when other antibiotics fail to eradicate bacteria
3. Given intravenously together with cilastin to prevent breakdown in the renal tubules
Aztreonam
1. Also wide spectrum, and not usually first line antibiotic
2. Activity mostly against Gram-negative organisms – especially Enterobacter and Pseudomonas
SULFONAMIDES AND TRIMETHOPRIM-SULFAMETHOXAZOLE (=CO-TRIMOXAZOLE)
1. Bacteriostatic against a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative, but many organisms are resistant
2. Act by preventing synthesis of folic acid
3. Trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole (a sulfonamide) together are synergistic in inhibiting folic acid and bacteria show less resistance.
4. Good oral absorption
5. Important for patient to be well hydrated and dose reduced (or avoided) in patient with renal insufficiency
6. Uses – used less these days, as bacteria become resistant
a. Sulfonamides are effective against Nocardia and Toxoplasma.
b. Can replace penicillin for prophylaxis in penicillin-sensitive patients
7. Side effects
a. Lack of appetite, nausea and vomiting
b. Can cause kernicterus in neonate if given to neonate or pregnant woman
c. Headache, depression, hallucinations
8. Toxic effects – hypersensitivity reactions, agranulocytosis, aplastic anemia
9. Contraindication – patients with G6PD deficiency – may cause acute hemolysis
10. Interactions – can increase effects of oral anticoagulants, sulfonylureas and hydantoin
11. Examples
a. Sulfisoxazole – used topically in the eye, with erythromycin for otitis media and for urinary tract infections.
b. Sulfasalazine is used in inflammatory bowel disease. Side-effects include nausea, fever, joint pain and rash. Toxic reactions include anemia and agranulocytosis.
c. Sulfacetamide is used topically in the eye.
d. Silver sulfadiazine is used on burns or decubitus (pressure) ulcers to prevent secondary bacterial or fungal infection
e. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole is used in pediatric infections and in urinary tract infections and gastroenteritis. It is also effective against Pneumocystis carinii in AIDS patients. It is used for prophylaxis in neutropenic patients.
QUINOLONES
1. Examples are ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin and norfloxacin.
2. Act by inhibiting DNA gyrase
3. Well absorbed orally; also given parenterally
4. Effective against E. coli, Shigella, Salmonella, Enterobacter, Campylobacter and Neisseria. Ciprofloxacin is more effective against Pseudomonas, Enterococcus and Pneumococcus. Quinolones also effective against intracellular bacteria such as Chlamydia, Mycoplasma, Mycobacterium, Legionella and Brucella.
5. Uses - urinary tract infections, prostatitis, sexually-transmitted diseases, gastroenteritis
6. Side effects
a. Nausea, headache, dizziness, abdominal discomfort
b. Can increase risk of convulsions in patient with epilepsy
7. Interactions
a. Theophylline or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) with a quinolone can cause hallucinations, delirium and even seizures.
b. Ciprofloxacin increases concentration of theophylline.
8. Contraindicated in children, pregnant or nursing women, and in epileptics.
DRUGS SPECIFIC FOR URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS
1. Concentration in urine with minimal systemic effects after oral administration
2. Examples are nalidixic acid, nitrofurantoin and methenamine.
AMINOGLYCOSIDES
General information
1. Examples are gentamicin, netilmicin, amikacin, streptomycin, tobramycin and neomycin.
2. Effective against aerobic Gram-negative organisms; amikacin has the widest spectrum
3. Not absorbed orally; given parenterally or topically
4. Uses
a. Gentamicin, tobramycin, amikacin and netilmicin are all used inpyelonephritis, hospital-acquired pneumonia, meningitis (by Gram-negative bacteria, given intrathecally), peritonitis, sepsis.
b. Tobramycin is also used topically in the eye.
c. Streptomycin was the prototype; due to resistance, it is now used mostly in tuberculosis, tularemia and plague
d. Neomycin is used only topically or orally (to clean the intestines before abdominal surgery) because of its severe toxicities.
5. Toxic effects
a. Ototoxicity – act on both auditory and vestibular portions of cranial nerve VIII, damage is usually irreversible, main effect is hearing loss
b. Nephrotoxicity – usually mild and reversible; the main problem is decreased clearance increases risk of ototoxicity
c. Rare – neuromuscular blockade with apnea
d. Streptomycin may also cause damage to the optic nerve and peripheral neuritis
4. Interactions - Furosemide and ethacrynic acid are synergistic for hearing loss with aminoglycosides.
TETRACYCLINES
1. Broad spectrum – bacteriostatic against Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms, including Rickettsia, Chlamydia, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Brucella, Hemophilus ducreyi, Legionella, Helicobacter pylori, Trepenoma pallidum, Borrelia bungdorferi and Ureaplasma
2. Examples are tetracycline, doxycycline, minocycline and demeclocycline.
3. Usually given orally; can be parenterally or topically to the eye
4. Uses – for treatment of infections by the above bacteria and also for the treatment of acne
5. Side effects
a. Damages intestinal flora and may cause fungal overgrowth, cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea epigastric pain and abdominal discomfort (better if given with food); esophagitis and ulcers have been seen.
b. Severe thrombophlebitis may occur with intravenous use.
c. Demeclocycline and doxycycline may cause photosensitivity.
6. Toxic effects
a. Liver damage – especially in pregnant women
b. Renal damage – may worsen existing disease
c. Demeclocycline may cause nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (and so is used to treat the Syndrome of inappropriate Anti-diuretic Hormone (SIADH)).
d. Pigmentation of the teeth may occur in small children if tetracyclines are given to them or to their mothers during pregnancy.
e. Outdated tetracycline can cause a form of Fanconi’s syndrome.
7. Interactions – when given with dairy foods, antacids, iron compounds, sulcrafate or bismuth compounds, the metal will chelate and decrease the absorption of the antibiotic.
8. Contraindications – administration to children under 8 years old and pregnant or nursing women
CHLORAMPHENICOL
1. Effective against a wide range of bacteria; mostly bacteriostatic; may be bactericidal against Hemophilus, Neisseria and Pneumococcus
2. Given orally and parenterally
3. Due to the risk of aplastic anemia, chloramphenicol is reserved for cases where the infection is resistant to other less toxic antibiotics.
4. The “gray baby” syndrome is seen in neonates, mostly premature, who receive chloramphenicol. It is often fatal.
5. Interactions
a. Chloramphenicol increases half-lives of dicumarol, phenytoin, chlorpropamide and tolbutamide.
b. Its half-life is decreased by rifampin or phenobarbital.
MACROLIDES
1. Examples are erythromycin, azithromycin and clarithromycin.
2. Usually bacteriostatic and effective against Gram-positive organisms, Chlamydia, Mycoplasma and Legionella; azithromycin and clarithromycin also effective against Hemophilus and Mycobacterium-avium-intracellulare.
3. Given orally in capsules or with enteric coating as gastric acid breaks the drug down; also given parenterally (intramuscular injection is painful). Give on an empty stomach.
4. Uses
a. for treatment of infections by the above organisms
b. for treatment of pertussis and prophylaxis of contacts
c. used for prophylaxis in penicillin-sensitive patients, particularly in pregnant women
5. Side effects
a. Gastro Intestinal Tract (GIT) effects can affect compliance – abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting
b. hypersensitivity
c. Cholestatic hepatitis – which is reversible after stopping the drug
6. Interactions – erythromycin increases effects of carbamazepine, steroids, cyclosporine, digoxin, theophylline, valproic acid, warfarin and more – via cytochrome P450
CLINDAMYCIN
1. Bacteriostatic against Gram-positive bacteria, anaerobes, Toxoplasma and Pneumocystis carinii
2. Given orally, topically and parenterally
3. Uses
a. for the treatment of infections caused by the above bacteria
b. for the oral and topical treatment of acne
c. for the oral and topical treatment of bacterial vaginosis
4. Side effects
a. Major cause of pseudomembranous colitis
b. Also see skin rash and when given intravenously, thrombophlebitismay occur
VANCOMYCIN
1. Effective against Staph., Strep., Enterococcus, Corynebacterium and Clostridium
2. Given intravenously; orally for the treatment of pseudomembranous colitis
3. Uses
a. Treatment of pseudomembranous colitis
b. Treatment of infections caused by Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
c. Treatment of infections by above bacteria when other antibiotics fail
4. Side effects - hypersensitivity
5. Toxic effects
a. Ototoxicity – may be reversible
a. “Red man” syndrome – flushing, tachycardia and hypotension – occurs with too rapid intravenous infusion.
b. May be kidney damage if given with nephrotoxic drugs or to patient with renal disorder
BACITRACIN
1. Topical use only due to severe nephrotoxicity if given parenterally
2. Effective against Gram-positive aerobes
3. Uses – eyes, skin
POLYMYXIN B
1. Topical use only due to severe nephrotoxicity if given parenterally
2. Effective against Gram-negative bacteria, especially Pseudomonas
3. Uses – ears, eyes and skin
DRUGS FOR THE TREATMENT OF DISEASES CAUSED BY MYCOBACTERIUM
DRUGS FOR THE TREATMENT OF TUBERCULOSIS
Background
1. First line drugs are isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, streptomycin and pyrazinamide – they are the most efficient, have acceptable side effects and will treat most cases of tuberculosis in most people. Treatment is with 2 or 3 agents because use of one agent encourages resistance. There is minimal cross-resistance between the various agents.
2. Second line drugs are used in resistant cases or in patients with AIDS and include ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, ethionamide, aminosalicylic acid, cycloserine, amikacin, kanamycin and capreomycin. They are only available for parenteral use. Due to ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity, these agents are only used if the first line drugs are not effective. Only one should be given with a first line agent, but not with streptomycin.
3. Different regimens are recommended. The basic regimen is isoniazid with rifampin and pyrazinamide for 2 months and then rifampin and isoniazid for another 4 months. Another possibility is isoniazid and rifampin for 9 months. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommend four drugs together – isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide and ethambutol or streptomycin.
4. The CDC regimen is recommended for those exposed to resistant strains and those with tuberculosis in sites other than the lungs or extensive disease in the lungs.
5. AIDS patients should receive at least the four-drug regimen, and in some cases a fifth or sixth drug may need to be added. Prophylactic treatment with isoniazid (ethambutol and pyrazinamide if exposed to resistant strains) is recommended to AIDS patients with positive Purified Protein Derivative (PPD) tests, anergy or at risk for tuberculosis.
6. In other patients, prophylaxis is recommended for those exposed totuberculosis, those with positive PPD but no clinical disease, those with history of active tuberculosis in the past who did not receive adequate treatment, and patients with anergy who come from a high-risk population. The recommended drug is isoniazid. Pregnant women and patients with active hepatic disease should receive prophylaxis at a later date.
7. The regimen of isoniazid, rifampin and ethambutol is considered to be safe for pregnant women.
Isoniazid
1. Drug of choice in tuberculosis
2. Mechanism of action is unknown.
3. Good oral and parenteral absorption; inactivation is via acetylation. Different populations have different proportions of “rapid” and “slow”acetylators, which influence how quickly the drug is inactivated.
4. Uses
a. Treatment of tuberculosis; usually two or three agents together
b. Alone for prophylaxis of tuberculosis
5. Side effects
a. Side effects include rash, fever, jaundice, hypersensitivity, arthritis,vasculitis, anemia, thrombocytopenia, eosinophilia andagranulocytosis.
b. Neurological side effects include peripheral neuritis, increased risk of convulsions in epileptics, euphoria, memory loss, psychosis, muscle twitches, dizziness, ataxia, paresthesias, stupor and encephalopathy.
c. To minimize neurological side effects, especially in patients with nutritional deficiencies (malnutrition, pregnancy, diabetes, chronic renal failure, elderly), pyridoxine (vitamin B6) is given together with the isoniazid.
d. Hepatotoxicity, which may be fatal, is not uncommon and the risk increases with increasing age. Need to watch very carefully for signs of hepatitis, besides jaundice that is a common side effect.
6. Toxic effects – coma, seizures, metabolic acidosis, hyperglycemia
7. Interactions – isoniazid increases concentrations of phenytoin, especially in slow acetylators. Adjustments as necessary should be made to the dose of phenytoin without changing the dose of isoniazid.
8. Contraindication – relative – hepatic disease
Rifampin
1. Effective against Gram-positive bacteria such as S. aureus, Hemophilus influenzae and Neisseria meningitidis and Gram-negative bacteria such as E. coli, Proteus, Klebsiella and Pseudomonas, as well as Mycobacterium, especially M. tuberculosis, M. kansasii and M. fortuitum
2. Acts by inhibiting RNA polymerase
3. Uses
a. in treatment of tuberculosis, together with isoniazid and others
b. for prophylaxis in people exposed to meningococcemia or H. influenzae type B meningitis
c. in cases of endocarditis or osteomyelitis resistant to other antibiotics
d. in leprosy
4. Given orally
5. Side effects
a. Colors body secretions orange
b. Rash, fever, nausea and vomiting, jaundice
c. Increased side effects are seen if rifampin is given infrequently or in high daily doses – a flu-like syndrome results that may develop into interstitial nephritis, acute tubular necrosis, hemolytic anemia and shock
d. Rifampin induces hepatic microsomal enzymes and so decreases the half-lives of many, many drugs. The most important of these aredigitoxin, quinidine, propanolol, oral anticoagulants, theophylline, barbiturates, oral contraceptives, halothane, methadone and sulfonylureas.
6. Toxic effects - Hepatotoxicity, especially in children, alcoholics, the elderly and patients with liver disease
7. Interactions
a. Is synergistic in vitro with streptomycin and isoniazid
b. Aminosalicylic acid may delay absorption of rifampin – best to give them 8-12 hours apart
8. Contraindications – best not to use in pregnancy or in patients with liver disease
Ethambutol
1. Mechanism of action is not known.
2. Oral absorption is good.
3. Uses – in treatment of tuberculosis together with other drugs
4. Side effects are minimal – blurry vision, rash, fever, headache,pruritus, arthralgia, dizziness, confusion, nausea and vomiting,hyperuricemia
5. Toxic effects - optic neuritis and red-green color blindness that are dose-dependent; should test visual acuity and color blindness before and during treatment with ethambutol
6. Contraindications – children under 5 years old
Streptomycin
1. Aminoglycoside antibiotic
2. Due to resistant bacteria and high toxicity, streptomycin is not often used today.
3. It is used together with two other drugs in disseminated tuberculosis or tuberculitic meningitis.
4. Side effects – rash, fever
5. Toxic effects – damage to cranial nerve VIII and the kidneys
Pyrazinamide
1. good oral absorption
2. uses – together with other drugs for the treatment of tuberculosis
3. side effects – hyperuricemia with clinical gout, arthralgia, nausea and vomiting, loss of appetitie, fever and painful urination
4. Toxic effects - liver disease is common and may be fatal; need to monitor liver function regularly
5. Contraindications – absolute – patient with liver disease
DRUGS FOR THE TREATMENT OF MYCOBACTERIUM AVIUM COMPLEX (MAC)
Background
1. MAC infection is common in AIDS patient where it is a disseminated disease. In patients without AIDS, it is usually restricted to the lungs.
2. Like tuberculosis, the use of one drug increases resistance and so the regiments are 2, 3 or 4 drugs.
3. The basic regimen is ethambutol with either clarithromycin or azithromycin.
4. Prophylaxis with rifabutin for life is recommended for AIDS patients with CD4 count under 100 cells/mm3.
Rifabutin
1. Derivative of rifampin
2. Used especially in AIDS patients
3. Given orally
4. Side effects – rash, nausea and vomiting, neutropenia, orange-colored body fluids
5. Toxic effects – uveitis, arthralgia
6. Like rifampin, induces hepatic microsomal enzymes and decreases concentrations of many drugs
Macrolides
1. Discussed in chapter on antibiotics
2. Examples are clarithromycin and azithromycin.
3. Used in combination with another agent (ethambutol, rifampin, rifabutin, ciprofloxacin, amikacin or clofazimine)
4. Toxic effects – tinnitus, dizziness and transient loss of hearing
Quinolones
1. Discussed in chapter on antibiotics
2. Used in AIDS patients – regimen is ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin, amikacin or rifampin, ethambutol, clofazimine and ciprofloxacin
DRUGS FOR THE TREATMENT OF LEPROSY
Sulfones
1. Most widely used is dapsone; sulfoxone is a derivative of dapsone
2. Dapsone is bacteriostatic for Mycobacterium leprae and is given orally.
3. Side effects – nausea, vomiting, lack of appetite, syndrome similar to infectious mononucleosis with possible mortality
4. Toxic effects – hemolysis, methemoglobinemia
5. A sulfone syndrome – similar to the Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction – may occur, with fever, jaundice, peeling skin, anemia and swollen glands.
Clofazimine
1. Used in MAC, but mainly in leprosy, together with other agents, for dapsone-resistant strains
2. Given orally
3. One side effect seen is red coloring of the skin
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Background
Divided by mode of action
1. inhibit cell wall synthesis – penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, vancomycin, bacitracin, miconazole, ketoconazole, clotrimazole
2. increase permeability of cell membrane – polymyxin, nystatin, amphotericin B
3. reversibly inhibit protein synthesis by affecting ribosomes 30 S and 50 S (bacteriostatic) – chloramphenicol, tetracyclines, macrolides, clindamycin
4. alter protein synthesis via 30 S ribosomes (bactericidal) – aminoglycosides
5. inhibit nucleic acids – rifampin, quinolones
6. antimetabolites – trimethoprim, sulfonamides
7. nucleic acid analogs – act on viruses – acyclovir, zidovudine, ganciclovir
Scanning electron m icrographs illustrating external features of the rod-shaped bacterium E. coli. The top image above is from: http://www.uq.oz.au/nanoworld. The lower image above is from: http://www.slic2.wsu.edu:82/hurlbert/micro101/pages/Chap2.html#two_bact_groups
PENICILLINS (Beta Lactams)
General side-effects
1. Most important are hypersensitivity and anaphylaxis. Penicillins are the most common cause of drug allergy. All types, dosages and forms of administration can potentially cause allergic reactions. Cross-reactions among the penicillins and between them and the cephalosporins are not uncommon.
2. Local reactions to intramuscular injection may be seen. Oral administration may cause nausea and diarrhea.
3. Toxic effects are minimal.
Penicillin G and V
1. effective against
a. Gram-positive cocci (Streptococcus, Neisseria meningitidis, but not Enterococcus)
b. Trepenoma pallidum (syphilis)
c. Borrelia burgdorferi (Lyme disease)
d. some anaerobes (Clostridium, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Actinomyces, Bacillus anthracis, Listeria) – not Bacteroides fragilis
2. Susceptible to penicillinase and so not effective against Staphylococcus aureus
3. Given orally (penicillin V less vulnerable to gastric acid) orparenterally; adding procaine or benzathine prolongs the effect of the penicillin. Best absorption is on an empty stomach.
4. Uses
a. To treat infections by above bacteria
b. As prophylaxis to prevent recurrent rheumatic fever, and in contacts of patients with syphilis, gonorrhea and streptococcal infections
c. Used as prophylaxis for infective endocarditis for susceptible people before dental or surgical procedures
5. Interactions – probenecid causes increased concentration
6. Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction
a. Seen in the majority of patients with secondary syphilis on receiving the first dose of penicillin
b. Flu-like symptoms – chills, fever, muscle aches, headache, joint pain – with enhanced color of the lesions of syphilis
c. Lasts for up to 48 hours and does not recur with later doses
d. May be due to antigens released by breakdown of the spirochetes
e. Not a reason to stop penicillin treatment; aspirin will help with symptoms
Penicillinase-resistant penicillins
1. Examples are methicillin, nafcillin, oxacillin, cloxacillin, and dicloxacillin
2. Effective against Gram-positive cocci (less so than penicillin V or G), including Staphylococcus aureus
3. MRSA = methicillin resistant S. aureus are treated by vancomycin.
4. Given orally (best absorption is on an empty stomach) andparenterally
5. Methicillin may cause interstitial nephritis.
Ampicillin, etc.
1. Examples are ampicillin, amoxicillin, bacampicillin
2. Effective also against some Gram-negative organisms – i.e. Hemophilus, E. coli, Proteus, also Salmonella and Listeria
3. Susceptible to b-lactamase – and so not effective for Staph. infections
4. Given orally (best is on an empty stomach) and parenterally
5. Ampicillin causes a rash in patients with infectious mononucleosis. Allopurinol will also increase chances of a rash with ampicillin.
Ampicillin and clavulanic acid
1. Clavulanic acid inactivates b-lactamase and so prevents breakdown of the antibiotic
2. Thus, the compound is effective against Staph. organisms.
Anti-Pseudomonas penicillins
1. Examples are carbenicillin and ticarcillin
2. Effective also against Pseudomonas, Enterobacter and Proteus
3. Susceptible to b-lactamase
4. Carbenicillin increases risk of heart failure, due to its ability to causehypernatremia and hypokalemia. It also interferes with aggregation of platelets. Ticarcillin has fewer side effects and so is preferred; it is given orally and parenterally.
5. A preparation of ticarcillin and clavulanic acid (for parenteral use) is more effective against Bacteroides, S. aureus and Gram-negative bacilli.
Broad-spectrum penicillins
1. Examples are mezlocillin and piperacillin
2. Effective also against Klebsiella and some other Gram-negative organisms
3. Susceptible to b-lactamase
4. Given only parenterally
CEPHALOSPORINS
General information
1. Most are given orally, intramuscularly or intravenously. Cephalothin is painful when injected intramuscularly and so should be used intravenously only.
2. Need to reduce dose in cases of kidney dysfunction
3. Cefuroxime, moxalactam, cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, cefepime and ceftizoxime are found in therapeutic concentrations in the Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF).
4. Cephalosporins cross the placenta.
5. Uses
a. As treatment for bacteria as given below
b. Prophylaxis for surgery
6. Side effects
a. Hypersensitivity reactions, as with penicillins; is cross-reactivity with penicillins
b. Diarrhea
7. Toxic effects – renal damage including acute tubular necrosis
8. Interactions - risk of nephrotoxicity increased with aminoglycosides
First generation
1. Examples are cephalothin, cefazolin, cephalexin and cefadroxil. The first two are given parenterally, the second two orally.
2. Effective against Gram-positive organisms (not including MRSA, S. epidermidis or Enterococcus) with slight activity against Gram-negative organisms (E. coli, Moraxella, Klebsiella, Proteus)
Second generation
1. Examples are cefoxitin, cefotetan, cefmanadole, cefuroxime, cefonicid and ceforanide that are given parenterally and cefaclor and loracarbef that can be given orally.
2. More effective against Gram-negative and less against Gram-positive than first generation cephalosporins; some are good against Bacteroides
Third generation
1. Examples are ceftazidime, cefoperazone, cefotaxime, ceftizoxime and ceftriaxone that are given parenterally, and cefpodoxime that can be given orally.
2. More effective against Gram-negative and less against Gram-positive than second generation cephalosporins, especially Enterobacter; some are good against Pseudomonas
3. Moxalactam can cause extensive hemorrhage.
Fourth generation
1. The only example available is cefepime, given parenterally.
2. Wider range than third generation and more stable against b-lactamase
CARBAPENEMS
Imipenem
1. A b-lactam antibiotic with a wide spectrum of activity; mode of action like penicillins and cephalosporins
2. Used when other antibiotics fail to eradicate bacteria
3. Given intravenously together with cilastin to prevent breakdown in the renal tubules
Aztreonam
1. Also wide spectrum, and not usually first line antibiotic
2. Activity mostly against Gram-negative organisms – especially Enterobacter and Pseudomonas
SULFONAMIDES AND TRIMETHOPRIM-SULFAMETHOXAZOLE (=CO-TRIMOXAZOLE)
1. Bacteriostatic against a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative, but many organisms are resistant
2. Act by preventing synthesis of folic acid
3. Trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole (a sulfonamide) together are synergistic in inhibiting folic acid and bacteria show less resistance.
4. Good oral absorption
5. Important for patient to be well hydrated and dose reduced (or avoided) in patient with renal insufficiency
6. Uses – used less these days, as bacteria become resistant
a. Sulfonamides are effective against Nocardia and Toxoplasma.
b. Can replace penicillin for prophylaxis in penicillin-sensitive patients
7. Side effects
a. Lack of appetite, nausea and vomiting
b. Can cause kernicterus in neonate if given to neonate or pregnant woman
c. Headache, depression, hallucinations
8. Toxic effects – hypersensitivity reactions, agranulocytosis, aplastic anemia
9. Contraindication – patients with G6PD deficiency – may cause acute hemolysis
10. Interactions – can increase effects of oral anticoagulants, sulfonylureas and hydantoin
11. Examples
a. Sulfisoxazole – used topically in the eye, with erythromycin for otitis media and for urinary tract infections.
b. Sulfasalazine is used in inflammatory bowel disease. Side-effects include nausea, fever, joint pain and rash. Toxic reactions include anemia and agranulocytosis.
c. Sulfacetamide is used topically in the eye.
d. Silver sulfadiazine is used on burns or decubitus (pressure) ulcers to prevent secondary bacterial or fungal infection
e. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole is used in pediatric infections and in urinary tract infections and gastroenteritis. It is also effective against Pneumocystis carinii in AIDS patients. It is used for prophylaxis in neutropenic patients.
QUINOLONES
1. Examples are ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin and norfloxacin.
2. Act by inhibiting DNA gyrase
3. Well absorbed orally; also given parenterally
4. Effective against E. coli, Shigella, Salmonella, Enterobacter, Campylobacter and Neisseria. Ciprofloxacin is more effective against Pseudomonas, Enterococcus and Pneumococcus. Quinolones also effective against intracellular bacteria such as Chlamydia, Mycoplasma, Mycobacterium, Legionella and Brucella.
5. Uses - urinary tract infections, prostatitis, sexually-transmitted diseases, gastroenteritis
6. Side effects
a. Nausea, headache, dizziness, abdominal discomfort
b. Can increase risk of convulsions in patient with epilepsy
7. Interactions
a. Theophylline or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) with a quinolone can cause hallucinations, delirium and even seizures.
b. Ciprofloxacin increases concentration of theophylline.
8. Contraindicated in children, pregnant or nursing women, and in epileptics.
DRUGS SPECIFIC FOR URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS
1. Concentration in urine with minimal systemic effects after oral administration
2. Examples are nalidixic acid, nitrofurantoin and methenamine.
AMINOGLYCOSIDES
General information
1. Examples are gentamicin, netilmicin, amikacin, streptomycin, tobramycin and neomycin.
2. Effective against aerobic Gram-negative organisms; amikacin has the widest spectrum
3. Not absorbed orally; given parenterally or topically
4. Uses
a. Gentamicin, tobramycin, amikacin and netilmicin are all used inpyelonephritis, hospital-acquired pneumonia, meningitis (by Gram-negative bacteria, given intrathecally), peritonitis, sepsis.
b. Tobramycin is also used topically in the eye.
c. Streptomycin was the prototype; due to resistance, it is now used mostly in tuberculosis, tularemia and plague
d. Neomycin is used only topically or orally (to clean the intestines before abdominal surgery) because of its severe toxicities.
5. Toxic effects
a. Ototoxicity – act on both auditory and vestibular portions of cranial nerve VIII, damage is usually irreversible, main effect is hearing loss
b. Nephrotoxicity – usually mild and reversible; the main problem is decreased clearance increases risk of ototoxicity
c. Rare – neuromuscular blockade with apnea
d. Streptomycin may also cause damage to the optic nerve and peripheral neuritis
4. Interactions - Furosemide and ethacrynic acid are synergistic for hearing loss with aminoglycosides.
TETRACYCLINES
1. Broad spectrum – bacteriostatic against Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms, including Rickettsia, Chlamydia, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Brucella, Hemophilus ducreyi, Legionella, Helicobacter pylori, Trepenoma pallidum, Borrelia bungdorferi and Ureaplasma
2. Examples are tetracycline, doxycycline, minocycline and demeclocycline.
3. Usually given orally; can be parenterally or topically to the eye
4. Uses – for treatment of infections by the above bacteria and also for the treatment of acne
5. Side effects
a. Damages intestinal flora and may cause fungal overgrowth, cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea epigastric pain and abdominal discomfort (better if given with food); esophagitis and ulcers have been seen.
b. Severe thrombophlebitis may occur with intravenous use.
c. Demeclocycline and doxycycline may cause photosensitivity.
6. Toxic effects
a. Liver damage – especially in pregnant women
b. Renal damage – may worsen existing disease
c. Demeclocycline may cause nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (and so is used to treat the Syndrome of inappropriate Anti-diuretic Hormone (SIADH)).
d. Pigmentation of the teeth may occur in small children if tetracyclines are given to them or to their mothers during pregnancy.
e. Outdated tetracycline can cause a form of Fanconi’s syndrome.
7. Interactions – when given with dairy foods, antacids, iron compounds, sulcrafate or bismuth compounds, the metal will chelate and decrease the absorption of the antibiotic.
8. Contraindications – administration to children under 8 years old and pregnant or nursing women
CHLORAMPHENICOL
1. Effective against a wide range of bacteria; mostly bacteriostatic; may be bactericidal against Hemophilus, Neisseria and Pneumococcus
2. Given orally and parenterally
3. Due to the risk of aplastic anemia, chloramphenicol is reserved for cases where the infection is resistant to other less toxic antibiotics.
4. The “gray baby” syndrome is seen in neonates, mostly premature, who receive chloramphenicol. It is often fatal.
5. Interactions
a. Chloramphenicol increases half-lives of dicumarol, phenytoin, chlorpropamide and tolbutamide.
b. Its half-life is decreased by rifampin or phenobarbital.
MACROLIDES
1. Examples are erythromycin, azithromycin and clarithromycin.
2. Usually bacteriostatic and effective against Gram-positive organisms, Chlamydia, Mycoplasma and Legionella; azithromycin and clarithromycin also effective against Hemophilus and Mycobacterium-avium-intracellulare.
3. Given orally in capsules or with enteric coating as gastric acid breaks the drug down; also given parenterally (intramuscular injection is painful). Give on an empty stomach.
4. Uses
a. for treatment of infections by the above organisms
b. for treatment of pertussis and prophylaxis of contacts
c. used for prophylaxis in penicillin-sensitive patients, particularly in pregnant women
5. Side effects
a. Gastro Intestinal Tract (GIT) effects can affect compliance – abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting
b. hypersensitivity
c. Cholestatic hepatitis – which is reversible after stopping the drug
6. Interactions – erythromycin increases effects of carbamazepine, steroids, cyclosporine, digoxin, theophylline, valproic acid, warfarin and more – via cytochrome P450
CLINDAMYCIN
1. Bacteriostatic against Gram-positive bacteria, anaerobes, Toxoplasma and Pneumocystis carinii
2. Given orally, topically and parenterally
3. Uses
a. for the treatment of infections caused by the above bacteria
b. for the oral and topical treatment of acne
c. for the oral and topical treatment of bacterial vaginosis
4. Side effects
a. Major cause of pseudomembranous colitis
b. Also see skin rash and when given intravenously, thrombophlebitismay occur
VANCOMYCIN
1. Effective against Staph., Strep., Enterococcus, Corynebacterium and Clostridium
2. Given intravenously; orally for the treatment of pseudomembranous colitis
3. Uses
a. Treatment of pseudomembranous colitis
b. Treatment of infections caused by Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
c. Treatment of infections by above bacteria when other antibiotics fail
4. Side effects - hypersensitivity
5. Toxic effects
a. Ototoxicity – may be reversible
a. “Red man” syndrome – flushing, tachycardia and hypotension – occurs with too rapid intravenous infusion.
b. May be kidney damage if given with nephrotoxic drugs or to patient with renal disorder
BACITRACIN
1. Topical use only due to severe nephrotoxicity if given parenterally
2. Effective against Gram-positive aerobes
3. Uses – eyes, skin
POLYMYXIN B
1. Topical use only due to severe nephrotoxicity if given parenterally
2. Effective against Gram-negative bacteria, especially Pseudomonas
3. Uses – ears, eyes and skin
DRUGS FOR THE TREATMENT OF DISEASES CAUSED BY MYCOBACTERIUM
DRUGS FOR THE TREATMENT OF TUBERCULOSIS
Background
1. First line drugs are isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, streptomycin and pyrazinamide – they are the most efficient, have acceptable side effects and will treat most cases of tuberculosis in most people. Treatment is with 2 or 3 agents because use of one agent encourages resistance. There is minimal cross-resistance between the various agents.
2. Second line drugs are used in resistant cases or in patients with AIDS and include ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, ethionamide, aminosalicylic acid, cycloserine, amikacin, kanamycin and capreomycin. They are only available for parenteral use. Due to ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity, these agents are only used if the first line drugs are not effective. Only one should be given with a first line agent, but not with streptomycin.
3. Different regimens are recommended. The basic regimen is isoniazid with rifampin and pyrazinamide for 2 months and then rifampin and isoniazid for another 4 months. Another possibility is isoniazid and rifampin for 9 months. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommend four drugs together – isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide and ethambutol or streptomycin.
4. The CDC regimen is recommended for those exposed to resistant strains and those with tuberculosis in sites other than the lungs or extensive disease in the lungs.
5. AIDS patients should receive at least the four-drug regimen, and in some cases a fifth or sixth drug may need to be added. Prophylactic treatment with isoniazid (ethambutol and pyrazinamide if exposed to resistant strains) is recommended to AIDS patients with positive Purified Protein Derivative (PPD) tests, anergy or at risk for tuberculosis.
6. In other patients, prophylaxis is recommended for those exposed totuberculosis, those with positive PPD but no clinical disease, those with history of active tuberculosis in the past who did not receive adequate treatment, and patients with anergy who come from a high-risk population. The recommended drug is isoniazid. Pregnant women and patients with active hepatic disease should receive prophylaxis at a later date.
7. The regimen of isoniazid, rifampin and ethambutol is considered to be safe for pregnant women.
Isoniazid
1. Drug of choice in tuberculosis
2. Mechanism of action is unknown.
3. Good oral and parenteral absorption; inactivation is via acetylation. Different populations have different proportions of “rapid” and “slow”acetylators, which influence how quickly the drug is inactivated.
4. Uses
a. Treatment of tuberculosis; usually two or three agents together
b. Alone for prophylaxis of tuberculosis
5. Side effects
a. Side effects include rash, fever, jaundice, hypersensitivity, arthritis,vasculitis, anemia, thrombocytopenia, eosinophilia andagranulocytosis.
b. Neurological side effects include peripheral neuritis, increased risk of convulsions in epileptics, euphoria, memory loss, psychosis, muscle twitches, dizziness, ataxia, paresthesias, stupor and encephalopathy.
c. To minimize neurological side effects, especially in patients with nutritional deficiencies (malnutrition, pregnancy, diabetes, chronic renal failure, elderly), pyridoxine (vitamin B6) is given together with the isoniazid.
d. Hepatotoxicity, which may be fatal, is not uncommon and the risk increases with increasing age. Need to watch very carefully for signs of hepatitis, besides jaundice that is a common side effect.
6. Toxic effects – coma, seizures, metabolic acidosis, hyperglycemia
7. Interactions – isoniazid increases concentrations of phenytoin, especially in slow acetylators. Adjustments as necessary should be made to the dose of phenytoin without changing the dose of isoniazid.
8. Contraindication – relative – hepatic disease
Rifampin
1. Effective against Gram-positive bacteria such as S. aureus, Hemophilus influenzae and Neisseria meningitidis and Gram-negative bacteria such as E. coli, Proteus, Klebsiella and Pseudomonas, as well as Mycobacterium, especially M. tuberculosis, M. kansasii and M. fortuitum
2. Acts by inhibiting RNA polymerase
3. Uses
a. in treatment of tuberculosis, together with isoniazid and others
b. for prophylaxis in people exposed to meningococcemia or H. influenzae type B meningitis
c. in cases of endocarditis or osteomyelitis resistant to other antibiotics
d. in leprosy
4. Given orally
5. Side effects
a. Colors body secretions orange
b. Rash, fever, nausea and vomiting, jaundice
c. Increased side effects are seen if rifampin is given infrequently or in high daily doses – a flu-like syndrome results that may develop into interstitial nephritis, acute tubular necrosis, hemolytic anemia and shock
d. Rifampin induces hepatic microsomal enzymes and so decreases the half-lives of many, many drugs. The most important of these aredigitoxin, quinidine, propanolol, oral anticoagulants, theophylline, barbiturates, oral contraceptives, halothane, methadone and sulfonylureas.
6. Toxic effects - Hepatotoxicity, especially in children, alcoholics, the elderly and patients with liver disease
7. Interactions
a. Is synergistic in vitro with streptomycin and isoniazid
b. Aminosalicylic acid may delay absorption of rifampin – best to give them 8-12 hours apart
8. Contraindications – best not to use in pregnancy or in patients with liver disease
Ethambutol
1. Mechanism of action is not known.
2. Oral absorption is good.
3. Uses – in treatment of tuberculosis together with other drugs
4. Side effects are minimal – blurry vision, rash, fever, headache,pruritus, arthralgia, dizziness, confusion, nausea and vomiting,hyperuricemia
5. Toxic effects - optic neuritis and red-green color blindness that are dose-dependent; should test visual acuity and color blindness before and during treatment with ethambutol
6. Contraindications – children under 5 years old
Streptomycin
1. Aminoglycoside antibiotic
2. Due to resistant bacteria and high toxicity, streptomycin is not often used today.
3. It is used together with two other drugs in disseminated tuberculosis or tuberculitic meningitis.
4. Side effects – rash, fever
5. Toxic effects – damage to cranial nerve VIII and the kidneys
Pyrazinamide
1. good oral absorption
2. uses – together with other drugs for the treatment of tuberculosis
3. side effects – hyperuricemia with clinical gout, arthralgia, nausea and vomiting, loss of appetitie, fever and painful urination
4. Toxic effects - liver disease is common and may be fatal; need to monitor liver function regularly
5. Contraindications – absolute – patient with liver disease
DRUGS FOR THE TREATMENT OF MYCOBACTERIUM AVIUM COMPLEX (MAC)
Background
1. MAC infection is common in AIDS patient where it is a disseminated disease. In patients without AIDS, it is usually restricted to the lungs.
2. Like tuberculosis, the use of one drug increases resistance and so the regiments are 2, 3 or 4 drugs.
3. The basic regimen is ethambutol with either clarithromycin or azithromycin.
4. Prophylaxis with rifabutin for life is recommended for AIDS patients with CD4 count under 100 cells/mm3.
Rifabutin
1. Derivative of rifampin
2. Used especially in AIDS patients
3. Given orally
4. Side effects – rash, nausea and vomiting, neutropenia, orange-colored body fluids
5. Toxic effects – uveitis, arthralgia
6. Like rifampin, induces hepatic microsomal enzymes and decreases concentrations of many drugs
Macrolides
1. Discussed in chapter on antibiotics
2. Examples are clarithromycin and azithromycin.
3. Used in combination with another agent (ethambutol, rifampin, rifabutin, ciprofloxacin, amikacin or clofazimine)
4. Toxic effects – tinnitus, dizziness and transient loss of hearing
Quinolones
1. Discussed in chapter on antibiotics
2. Used in AIDS patients – regimen is ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin, amikacin or rifampin, ethambutol, clofazimine and ciprofloxacin
DRUGS FOR THE TREATMENT OF LEPROSY
Sulfones
1. Most widely used is dapsone; sulfoxone is a derivative of dapsone
2. Dapsone is bacteriostatic for Mycobacterium leprae and is given orally.
3. Side effects – nausea, vomiting, lack of appetite, syndrome similar to infectious mononucleosis with possible mortality
4. Toxic effects – hemolysis, methemoglobinemia
5. A sulfone syndrome – similar to the Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction – may occur, with fever, jaundice, peeling skin, anemia and swollen glands.
Clofazimine
1. Used in MAC, but mainly in leprosy, together with other agents, for dapsone-resistant strains
2. Given orally
3. One side effect seen is red coloring of the skin
For more information on Clinical Research Career Training and Clinical Trials Services please contact Kriger Research Group atinfo@kriger.com or call (866) 757-9791 (USA and Canada) or + 1(416) 630-0038 (Internationally)
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